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1 $ & 




A 


GRAMMAR 

OP THE 


ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 


y\ ■> 

a> v/BY 

GEO: F; HOLMES, LL.D., 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, GENERAL LITERATURE AND RHETORIC, 
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. 


“He who can see in modern languages nothing but corruption or anomaly, 
understands but little of the true nature of language.” 



NEW YORK: 

% UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

155 AND 157 CROSRY STREET. 

Baltimore: 54 Lexington Street. 





Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867. 

By RICHARDSON AND COMPANY, 

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 

District of New York. 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by the 
University Publishing Company, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


Joseph J. Little, 

Stereotyper, Electrotyper, and Printer, 
108 to ill Wooster St., N.Y,. 



0 



PREFACE. 


When this Grammar was undertaken, little more was 
contemplated than to adapt to the use of American 
schools what appeared to be best in the numerous Gram¬ 
mars of the English tongue recently published in England, 
with such additions and improvements as might be derived 
from other sources, including the results of private studies 
previously pursued. But in the process of composition 
new views presented themselves and stimulated increased 
research. Such researches suggested further modifications 
and wider departures from the models proposed. The 
work thus became less of a compilation, and assumed a 
degree of originality not designed at first. Its character 
was largely affected by the steady observance of the prin¬ 
ciple, introduced by Grimm into modern philology, of 
settling all disputed and doubtful points by reference to 
the historical alterations of the language. 

The change of plan thus occasioned has rendered it 
impossible to distinguish between what is borrowed and 
what is original. All accessible sources, English and 
American, have been consulted and freely used. It is 
proper to express in general terms a grateful sense of 
obligation to many excellent school grammars, and to 
acknowledge the continual assistance obtained from Wal- 



2 


PREFACE. 


lis, Horne Tooke, Taylor, Latham, Marsh, Clark, Alford, 
Max Muller, and many other authors whom it would ho 
tedious as well as ostentatious to mention. The examples 
and exercises have been usually taken without hesitation 
from preceding works of a similar nature,—a procedure 
adopted in most school grammars. No pretension to 
originality is made; the only aim has been to secure cor¬ 
rectness, clearness, and precision. There has been every 
desire to rob no one of his fair fame, and to appropriate 
nothing which could be claimed as the discovery of a 
predecessor. 

The present usage of the language has been regarded as 
the sole standard of grammatical propriety; but all ex¬ 
isting ambiguities and difficulties have been resolved by 
recurring to the earlier forms of the tongue. The brevity 
and simplicity required in a school manual have prevented 
the complete introduction of the historical testimonies 
which sustain the views adopted, and have in many 
instances excluded them altogether. But the whole book 
rests upon an historical basis, and upon an examination 
of the phases through which the English has passed in 
the long lapse of a thousand years. 

The work has been so arranged as to furnish a know¬ 
ledge of the principles of English grammar in a very 
narrow compass; to afford a fuller acquaintance with 
them in their applications without entering into minute 
details; and to provide the teacher or the advanced stu¬ 
dent with such explanations as seemed requisite, without 
confounding these with what was sufficient for elementary 
instruction. The “Introduction to English Grammar,” 
which need not be committed to memory, is designed to 


PREFACE. 


3 


give a general view of the nature and subjects of English 
Grammar, and to secure familiarity with the leading con¬ 
ceptions of grammatical science. The beginner, on the 
first study of the body of the book, should learn and com¬ 
mit to memory only the large print, omitting the divisions 
and sections marked with an asterisk. After having ac¬ 
curately learnt these portions, the young scholar should 
go over the whole again, and should learn what is noted 
with an asterisk, and also all that is in print of the second 
size. The observations, which are in the smallest type, 
are intended for the use of teachers, and of such pupils 
as may be able to profit by them. 

Questions on the text are placed at the foot of each 
page for the convenience of teachers and scholars, but the 
practice of acquiring or imparting knowledge by means 
of printed questions is commended to neither teacher nor 
scholar. The questions may be and should be varied by 
the instructor whenever it is practicable. 

The exercises are made brief in order to prevent un¬ 
necessary delays, and to diminish the size and cost of the 
book. Brief manuals are most appropriate for elementary 
instruction. All that is requisite is sufficient practice to 
illustrate the rules and to secure familiarity with the prin¬ 
ciples. A few examples of parsing, with appropriate ref¬ 
erences to the definitions and rules, and a few passages to 
be parsed, have been introduced in order to supply what¬ 
ever may be deemed requisite for elementary instruction 
in English Grammar. These passages exhibit the customary 
characteristics of the language. They consist almost en¬ 
tirely of extracts from writings of acknowledged reputa¬ 
tion, but of the most diverse styles. Parsing exercises 


4 


PREFACE. 


may be readily multiplied to any extent desired, by using 
the school reading-books as texts for this purpose. The 
language is then studied in its living connections. It is 
designed, however, to prepare a series of small exercise- 
books for parsing and for the fuller illustration of the id¬ 
iomatic and other peculiarities of the English tongue. It 
is also proposed, at some future time, should leisure per¬ 
mit and the public demand justify it, to publish either a 
copious and critical Grammar of the English language, or 
a volume of Notes on English Grammar, capable of ready 
use in connection with the present work, for the elucida¬ 
tion of the numerous difficulties of the tongue, and for 
the attestation of the principles laid down and applied in 
this book. 

With the hope that this effort to facilitate an accurate 
acquaintance with the grammar of the English language 
may prove serviceable to the youth of the country, it is 
diffidently submitted to the favorable consideration of 
teachers and of the public. 


NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 

In this revised edition, some alterations, for the most part trifling 
in character, have been made. Errors that have been discovered or 
pointed out have been corrected ; some changes have been made in 
the nomenclature or expression, for the sake of greater simplicity •, 
and considerable additions have been made to the Exercises in 
Parsing and in Analysis. Due attention has been paid to favorable 
and unfavorable criticisms ; and much benefit has been derived from 
the suggestions of teachers who have used the book with their 
classes. Such suggestions will always be received with thankful¬ 
ness, and fully considered, though they may not always be adopted. 



CONTENTS, 


INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

SECT. PAGE 

1-12. Component parts of Language. 7-9 

13-72. Different kinds of Words. 9-27 

73-75. Enumeration of the Parts of Speech. 28 

76-79. Sentences, and their kinds. 29-35 

100. Conclusion of Introduction. 35-36 

ELEMENTARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3—14. Introductory Remarks and Divisions of Grammar. 37-39 

PART I.—ORTHOGRAPHY. 

15-47. Sounds, Letters, Syllables, and Words. 40-46 

PART II.—ETYMOLOGY. 

48-61. Introduction to Etymology. 48-49 

62-159. Etymology. — Part I.— Classification of Words. 

62-77. Enumeration and Character of the Parts of Speech 50-52 

78-159. Nature of the several Parts of Speech. 53-83 

160-301. Etymology. — Part II.— Accidence , or Inflection. 

160-163. Inflected and Uninflected Parts of Speech. 83-84 

164-198. The Declension of Nouns.. 84-98 

199-205. The Declension of Pronouns... 98-102 

206-218. The Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs.102-108 

219-300. The Conjugation of Verbs.108-150 

301. List of Irregular Verbs .... 151-154 

















6 


CONTENTS. 


SECT. PAGE 

302-345. Etymology. — Part III.— Derivation. 

302-315. Nature of Derivation. 154-156 

316-319. English Primitives. 156-157 

320-322. English Primary Derivatives. 157-158 

323-345. English Secondary Derivatives; and Affixes. 158-163 

PART III.—SYNTAX. 

346-370. Syntax in General. 164-169 

Part I. —Construction, or the Syntax of Words. 

371-384. Section I. Agreement, or Concord. 169-175 

385-398. “ II. The Construction of Dependent Words.. 175-182 

399-407. “ III. The Connection of Words, Clauses, &c.. 182-185 

408^417. “ IV. The Arrangement of Words in a Sentence 186-191 

Part II. —The Structure of Sentences. 

419-428. The Structure of Sentences. 191-198 

PART IV.—PROSODY. 

429. Subjects of Prosody. 199-200 

430-441. Punctuation. 200-205 

442-444. Accent and Emphasis. 205-206 

445-454. Rhythm and Metre. 206-209 

454-471. The Structure of Verse. 209-214 

472-485. The Combination of Verses. 214-219 

Exercises for Parsing. 220-240 

















I. 

1. When we talk, we use Language to express our 
thoughts, or feelings, or wishes. 

When we say, “ The sun shines,” “ I am cold,” “ Make a 
fire,” we employ language. 

2. Language is composed of Words. 

“The” “sun,” “shines,” “I,” “am,” “cold,” “make,” 
“ a,” “ fire,” are words. 

3. Words taken separately are not language. 

Words, when used separately, are parts of language, hut 
they are not language, because they do not convey any com¬ 
plete meaning. The wheels of a watch are not a watch, 
though they form a watch when properly put together. 

“ The,” “ make,” “ cold,” “ am,” are w.ords, but they con¬ 
vey no distinct meaning when they stand alone. 

4. Words must be joined together so as to express a 
complete meaning, before they constitute language. 

“ I am cold” is language, because it expresses a distinct 
and complete meaning. 

* This Introduction is designed to give a general view of the nature of language, the uses 
and kinds of words, and the subjects of English Grammar. It should be made the basis of 
oral instruction, so as to prepare the pupil for the study of systematic grammar. 


1. What do we use when we talk ? 2. What is Language composed of ? 3. Do 
words taken separately make language ? Why not ? 4. How must words be used 
to constitute language ? 












8 


INTRODUCTION TO 


5 . Words joined together so as to convey a complete 
meaning, form Sentences. 

“ The sun shines,” “ Make a fire,” are sentences. 

6. A Sentence is a collection of words conveying a 
distinct meaning, and expressing a complete thought 
or feeling ; as, The sun shines / I am cold. 

Obs.—S ometimes a sentence appears to consist of a single word; 
as “ Go " “ Come" “Here" But, in such cases, other words' are 
understood to complete the form of the sentence. “ Go" means “ go 
thou:" “Come" means “come thou;" “Here" means “ here I am, 
or “ here he is" or “come here" or something else suggested by the 
connection in which the word is used. 

7. In the study of language, we study words and 
their employment in the formation of sentences. 

8. Language is either Spoken or Written, and the 
words of which language is composed are spoken or 
written words. 

When we listen to any one speaking, we hear spoken 
language. 

When we gather from a letter or a book what is commu¬ 
nicated, we read written language. 

When we speak, we use spoken language; when we 
write, we use written language. 

Obs.— Printing is a substitute for writing, and is included under 
written language. 

9. Spoken words consist of a sound or sounds which 
convey a definite signification. 

10. Written words consist of a letter or letters which 
are used as signs of the sounds employed in the for¬ 
mation of spoken words. 


6. What do words expressing a distinct meaning form ? 6. What is a Sentence 1 
Give examples of sentences. 7. What do we study in the study of language? 
8. What are the two kinds of language ? What are the two kinds of words ? When 
do we hear spoken language ? When do we read written language ? When do we 
use spoken language ? When do we use written language ? 9. What do spoken 
words consist of? 10. What do written words consist of? What are letters ? 



ENGLISH GR AMMAR . 


9 


“I,” “jtm* “he,” “thunder,” “lightning,” when pro- 

nounced^*ja-|jjW eit words. When they are read, as they 

stand they are written words. 

is earlier than written language. Both are 
regaTsSS hi Lot tsia lay of language, though not always at the same 
time. 

11. Different words serve different uses in the con¬ 
struction of sentences. 

In the sentence, “ I am cold,” the words “ I,” “ am,” 
“ cold,” serve different purposes. 

Obs. 1.—Different words are sometimes expressed by the same 
sounds; as, /, eye , aye; ale , ail. 

♦ Obs. 2.—The same forms of words—the same words, if attention 

be confined to the sounds or letters composing them—are used in 
different ways, and thus become different words; as, a nail , and to 
nail up a box. 

12. Words are of different kinds, according to tlie 
different uses which they serve in the construction of 
sentences. 

The words “ I,” “ am,” “ cold,” signify different things, 

and also serve different uses in the formation of the sentence 

“ I am cold.” These words are different in kind. 

Obs.—T he character of words must be learnt before the nature of 
sentences and of language can be understood. 

II. 

Words signifying Things. 

13. Many words signify things which maybe touched 
or handled; as, knife, pen, book, chair, table, dog, horse, 
man. 

14. Such words supply names for the things spoken of. 

We cannot describe or speak about anything, unless we 
give it a name. 


11 . Do all words serve the same purposes in the construction of sentences? 
Illustrate this by forming sentences, and showing what words serve different uses. 
12. Are all words of the same kind? Point out words of different kinds in sen¬ 
tences. 13. What do many words signify ? Give other words of the same kind. 
14. What do such words supply? Name the things in the school-room. 

1 * 



10 


INTRODUCTION TO 


15. Words, that are names of tilings, are called 
Nouns. 

Knife , book, pen , etc., are nouns. 

16. Many things may be named which cannot be 
touched or handled, but which are perceived by some 
of the senses; as, day, night, sun, moon, stars, ivind. 

Such words are nouns because they are names of things. 

17. Many words denote things which cannot be 
directly perceived by the senses, but which are recog¬ 
nized by the mind; as, anger, pleasure, pain, gain, loss. 

These are names of things, and, therefore, are nouns. 

18. Other words signify things which have no sepa¬ 
rate existence of their own. They name things which 
exist only in other things with which they are con¬ 
nected. 


Such words are color , heat , whiteness , warmth , length , truth. 

Obs.—T hese words denote qualities or properties belonging to 
things ; but they name those qualities or properties, and they are. 
therefore, nouns. 

19. Nouns are words which are names of things. 

Obs. 1.—The things, of which words are the names, may be touched 
or handled, as a kettle, an andiron ; or may be perceived by one or 
more of the senses, as sound , light, a breeze ; or by the mind aided 
by the senses, as joy, grief ; or by the mind alone, as virtue, vice , 
crime. 

The things named by nouns may have an actual or a conceivable 
existence only. They may exist by themselves, or only in connec¬ 
tion with something else. 

Obs. 2.—Any word used as a name is a noun while so used. In 
the sentence, Come is a Verb — cotne is a noun, because employed 
as the name of a word. 


15. What are words, which name things, called ? 16. What other things may be 
named bywords? Give examples of such names. 17. What kind of things are 
named by many other words ? Mention words of this kind. 18. What other things 
are also named by words ? Specify words of this sort. 19. What are nouns ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


11 


III. 

Words signifying Qualities of things. 

20. Things are distinguished from each other by the 
qualities or properties belonging to them; as, a white 
horse, a hay horse , a gray horse. 

There are two pieces of ribbon, alike in other respects, 
but the one is red , the other is green. They are distinguished 
by difference of color. One is marked by the color red , the 
other by the color g^een. 

Bed is seen in tne oue ribbon. It is seen also in blood, in 
bricks, in vermilion; and in many other things. Green is 
seen in the other ribbon. It is seen also in grass, in the 
leaves of trees, in verdigivs, etc. 

Neither red nor green can be seen by themselves. We can 
only see something that is red , and something that is green. 

Bed , green, and similar winds denote qualities or properties 
existing in things, and are perceived only in the things in 
which they exist. 

21. Qualities or Properties existing in things are 
called Attributes of those things. 

When we speak of “ a bay horse ,” the quality signified 
by bay is an attribute of the horse, and is regarded as con¬ 
nected with the horse. When we say “ a black sheep” the 
quality black is attributed to the sheep. 

22. Qualities and properties may be considered apart 
from the things in which they exist, and may be named 
separately; as, blackness , whiteness , heat . 

When the qualities are so considered and named, their 
names are nouns. 

23. "Words which name qualities connected with 


20. How are things distinguished from each other ? Give examples of such distinc¬ 
tions. 21. What are qualities or properties existing in things called ? 22. Can oual 
i ties or properties be considered by themselves? What are their names, then * 
23. What are words, which name qualities connected with things, called ? 



12 


INTRODUCTION TO 


things, or Attributive words, are called Adjec¬ 
tives. 

Green, beautiful , red, bright are adjectives. 

Obs. — Adjectives, as well as nouns, are names. Nouns name 

things. Adjectives name qualities or properties existing in things. 

24. Adjectives are words which name qualities or 
properties attributed to things. 

When we say a graceful lady, the quality of grace is as¬ 
cribed to a lady. 

When we say a violent wind, the property of violence is 
attributed to the wind. 

When we say an ungainly person, the quality of ungainli- 
ness is ascribed to a person. 

The words graceful, violent, ungainly, name qualities con¬ 
sidered in connection with “ a lady,” “ a wind,” “ a person,” 
respectively, and are adjectives. 

25. Adjectives always refer to nouns, expressed or 
understood. 

When we say, “ Here is a piece of white cloth,” the ad¬ 
jective white refers to the noun cloth, which is expressed. 

When we say “ White may be seen further than black," the 
adjectives white and black refer to a noun—color, or colors 
—which is understood without being expressed. 

In the phrase, “ The Holy One of Israel,” Holy refers to 
One, which is understood to mean God, the name of the 
Supreme Being—therefore a noun. 

Exercises. 

I. Name some Qualities or Properties in connection with each of the 
following things. 

Rocks, bones, coffee, trees, mice, birds, beans, water 
jewels, dogs, ducks, dresses, plants, apples, oranges, houses 
churches, games. 

What kind of words are those which denotes qualities in this way ? 


24. What are Adjectives? Show the nature of adjectives by examples. 26. What 
do adjectives always refer to ? Explain this by examples. 



ENGLISH GPAMMAB. 


13 


II. Join suitable Adjectives with the following words. 

Days, nights, dreams, rooms, bonnets, lessons, boys, mar¬ 
bles, roads, carriages, branches, streets. 

III. Supply Nouns in the following phrases . 

Muddy-, broad-, deep -, bright -, wooden 

-, white-, heavy-, long-, righteous-, wise 

-, soft-, gentle-, true-. 


IV. Point out the Nouns and Adjectives in the following 
expressions. 

Good children, things good and bad, great industry, a 
wooden bucket, a heavy loss, white raiment, rainy mornings, 
hot bread, sweet cakes, men eager and anxious, a dangerous 
attempt, a dirty village, slovenly girls, bright faces. 


IV. 

Words employed to limit the application of nouns. 

26. Some nouns name individual things only; as, 
John, Ccesar, London, Asia. 

These are called Proper Names, or Proper Nouns, because 
they are appropriated to individual persons, places, or things. 

27. Most nouns are names of classes or kinds of 
things, and do not alone name individuals of the class or 
kind; as, lion, tiger,flower, rose, river, iron, wheat, straw. 

The noun lion is the name given to the whole class of 
lions. It does not by itself mean any single lion, or any 
particular lions : so iron means a kind of metal. 

Such names are called Common Nouns, because they are 
names common to a whole class, and to any or all of the 
members of the class. 


26. What do some nouns name ? What are individual names called ? 27. What 
do moBt nouns name ? What are these names of classes called ? 




14 


INTRODUCTION TO 


28. Certain words are employed to indicate any single 
individual, or a particular individual, or particular in¬ 
dividuals of a class of things. 

Lion is applied to the whole class of lions. We must use 
other words to limit the signification or application of the 
name lion , when we desire to speak of any single lion, or 
when we would indicate a particular lion, or particular 
lions. 

29. A or an , and the are the words employed to limit 
the application of nouns in this way. 

We say, a chair , an owl; the chair , the owl; the chairs , the 
owls. 

30. A or an is employed to signify that a single 
member of the class is spoken of, and that no particu¬ 
lar individual of the class is meant. 

A chair denotes a single chair, and is applied to any chair, 
without indicating any chair in particular. 

An owl means a single owl, but does not mean any partic¬ 
ular owl. 

A is used before words beginning with a consonant 
sound; as, a boat. 

An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; 
as, an apple. 

31. The is used to signify a particular individual, or 
particular individuals of a class, and points out those 
which are meant; as, the chair , the chairs. 

The chair signifies a single chair, but indicates a particular 
chair. 

The ox signifies a single ox, but specifies one particular ox. 

The chairs denotes several chairs, but refers to certain par 
ticular chairs. 


28. How is it shown whether particular individuals of a class are spoken of, or 
not? 29. What words are employed to limit the application of nouns? 30. What 
Is a or an employed to signify ? When is a, and when is an used ? 31. What ia 
the used to signify ? Give examples of the use of the. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


15 


32. The words a, an, and the are called Articles. 

33. Articles are words employed to show the man¬ 
ner in which nouns are used in a sentence, and to 
determine their application. 

34. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because 
it leaves undefined or undetermined the particular 
member of the class signified by the noun. 

A man is any man. No particular man is meant. The 
article a shows that no particular man is meant. 

35. The is called the Definite Article, because it 
points out or defines the particular member or mem¬ 
bers of the class mentioned. 

The man is not any man, but a certain specified man. 

The men is not any men indifferently, but certain definite 
men. 

36. When nouns are not limited by an article, they 
embrace the whole class named by them. 

Man embraces the whole human family. Men includes 
all men. 

Birds comprehends all birds without limitation. 

Iron , silver , gold mean everything consisting of those metals. 


Exercises. 

I. Point out the Proper Names and the Common Nouns in the list 
of words following . 

Death, gulf, candle, Alexander, angels, repose, Macon, 
dream, Amazon, Mexico, shadows, tomb, face, palace, 
stream, Jackson, brass, coal, ashes, Pompey, Joshua, brain, 
Palestine, air, moisture, Potomac, Paris, lips, wall, dungeon. 


32. What are the words a, an , and the called ? 33. What are Articles ? 35. What 
is the article a or an called ? Why ? Explain this. 35. What is the article the 
called ? Why ? Explain this by examples. 36. When nouns are used without an 
article, what is the extent of their application ? 



16 


INTRODUCTION TO 


n Use the Indefinite Article with the nouns 

Gentleman, ear, sound, stride, smile, heart, triumph, sus¬ 
picion, arm, hand, hell, hair, heir, onion, union, spider, his¬ 
tory, hed, yell, wish, floor, eye, island, plank. 

III. Use the Definite Article with the nouns 

Lake, crystal, bank, rivers, angles, rocks, bridges, shore, 
fish, iron, canoes, precipices, fowls, tulip, odors, perfumes. 

The Exercises may be varied by requiring them to be done orally 
in the class, or on the blackboard, or on the slate. 


V. 

Words which supply the place of Nouns. 

37. When a thing is mentioned more than once, it is 
often inconvenient to repeat its name on each occasion. 

It would he awkward if we were obliged to say: The sun 
returns every morning. The sun rises in the east. The 
sun ascends the sky. The sun stands at noon above our 
heads. The sun then descends. The sun sets in the west 
The sun passes out of sight in the evening. 

Instead of repeating the name of the sun so often, and 
multiplying sentences, we say: The sun returns every 
morning; it rises in the east; it ascends the sky; it stands 
at noon above our heads; it then descends; it sets in the 
west; and it passes out of sight in the evening. 

The word it supplies the place of the noun sun , and refers 
to it. 

38. A distinct class of words is employed to avoid 
the repetition of nouns. These words are callod Pro¬ 
nouns. 

They are called pronouns because they stand in tin place 
of nouns, and serve the same purposes. 


37. Is the repetition of the same name inconvenient ? 38. How is thin repeti 
tion avoided ? What are the words used as substitutes called 1 A ny ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


17 


39. A Pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
of a noun. 

40. Some pronouns stand for nouns. Other pro¬ 
nouns stand for adjectives. 

Bring wood to the fire. It is at the door. Here it supplies 
the place of wood. It stands for a noun. 

• This tree is an oak, that tree is a chestnut. Here this sup¬ 
plies the place of an adjective, such as nearest; that , of an 
adjective like furthest. 

41. Pronouns are of two classes, according as they 
take the place of nouns or of adjectives. 

It supplies the place of a noun. This supplies the place 
of an adjective. 

42. Pronouns used in place of nouns are called Sub¬ 
stantive-Pronouns. 

It is a substantive-pronoun. It represents, or supplies the 
place of a noun. 

43. Pronouns used in place of adjectives are called 
Adjective-Pronouns. 

This is an adjective-pronoun. It represents an adjective. 

44. The principal substantive-pronouns are called 
Personal Pronouns, because they distinguish between 
the person speaking, the person spoken to, and the per¬ 
son or thing spoken of. 

I wish you to tell it to him. “ I” “ you” “ it” “ him” are 
personal pronouns. 


39. What is a Pronoun ? 40. Do all pronouns stand for the same class of words f 
Show that they do not. 41. How many classes of pronouns are there ? What are 
they? 42. What name is given to pronouns representing nouns? 43. What are 
pronouns which represent adjectives called ? 44. What are the principal sub¬ 

stantive-pronouns called ? Why ? 



18 


INTRODUCTION TO 


“ /” means the person speaking. “ You 1 '' means the per¬ 
son spoken to. “ It" means the thing spoken of. “ Him" 
means the person spoken of. 

Obs.— It is scarcely practicable to substitute nouns for the personal 
pronouns “7” and “you.” But nouns may be easily substituted for 
“ it” and “ him.” Thus we may say, “ / wish you to tell the secret to 
a friend” 

45. There are three personal pronouns—the pro¬ 
nouns of the First, Second, and Third Persons. 

46. The Personal Pronouns are— I, We, of the first 

person; Thou, You, of the second person; He, She, It, 
They, of the third person. 

The first person denotes the person or persons speaking. 
The second person denotes the person or persons spoken 
to, or addressed. 

The third person denotes the person or persons, thing or 
things spoken of. 

47. The Adjective Pronouns are numerous, and 

are divided into several classes. 

1. The Possessive Pronouns; as, my, our, thy, your, his, her, 
its, their. 

2. The Relative Pronouns ; as, who, which, what. 

3. The Interrogative Pronouns ; as, who, which, what. 

4. The Demonstrative Pronouns; as, this, that, these, 
those. 

5. The Distributive Pronouns; as, each, every, either. 

6. The Indefinite Pronouns ; as, some, other, any. 

Exercises. 

Point out the Pronouns in the following sentences, distinguishing 

their kinds. 

I went to see your father at his house. He had gone to a 
neighbor’s. You found the axe before it was needed. Now 
give it to him. Every thing should be put in its place, that 
you may know where each thing is. 


45. How many personal pronouns are there ? What are they ? 46. What are the 
personal pronouns? What do these pronouns respectively denote? 47. How are 
the adj ective-pronouns divided ? What are the several kinds of adj ective-pronouns ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


19 


VI. 

Words signifying the actions and conditions of things. 

48. When anything is mentioned, it is mentioned for 
the sake of saying something about it. 

If I say “ Stars'' no communication is made by this single 
word. Other words must be employed to signify what my 
thought is about “ stars.” 

If I say, “ Stars shine” a thought is expressed, and some 
information conveyed. 

If I say, “ Robert” or “ Good Robert” another word or 
words must be added to tell something about “ Robert” or 
to say something to him. A meaning is conveyed by saying 
“Robert sleeps” “ Speak, Robert” “ Good Robert died” 

49. When a thing is mentioned, something is said 
about its actions or conditions. 

When we say, “ Stars shine” we declare that stars are 
characterized by shining, or that the property of shining 
belongs to stars. 

When we say “ Robert sleeps” or “ Robert died” we an¬ 
nounce the condition of Robert. 

When we say “ Speak , Robert” we command Robert to 
do a certain act. 

50. Words which declare the acts, actions, or condi¬ 
tions of things are called Verbs. 

In the sentences, Boys play; Birds fly; Rivers flow; 
Men die ; Goal burns ; something is stated in regard to the 
acts, actions, or conditions of boys, birds, rivers, men, and 
coal. The words by which these statements are made— 
namely, play, fly, flow, die, burns —are Verbs. 

51. A Verb is a word which expresses existence, a 


48. For wbat purpose is anything mentioned ? Explain this. 49. What is spoken 
about when a thing is mentioned? Illustrate this. 50. What name is given to 
words which declare the acts or conditions of things ? 51. What is a Verb ? 



20 


INTRODUCTION TO 


condition of existence, an act, or an action; as, I am 
here; I weep ; I run ; I strike a blow. 

Verb signifies word. It is so called because it is the in¬ 
dispensable word for the expression of thought or feeling. 
Nouns, adjectives, articles, pronouns, without verbs, cannot 
express any distinct meaning. It is the verb by which this 
is done. No sense will be made by the other words, if the 
verbs are left out of the sentences. 

No sense will be made by the words, I-sick; The 

kind lady-me. But the sense is complete in the sen¬ 

tences, I was sick; The kind lady nursed me. 

52. There must be a verb in every complete sentence. 

Words, without a verb, exhibit only some of the discon¬ 
nected elements of speech. The verb combines these ele¬ 
ments into a distinct statement 
In this sentence, “ Many useful plants grow in the garden," 
the verb grow enables the words connected with it to express 
a distinct meaning, and unites them together so as to form 
a sentence. 

Obs.—S entences are sometimes expressed without a verb; but in 
such cases a verb is always understood, or implied. Thus, in the 
proverb, Many men , many minds , no verb is expressed, but a verb 
is implied, and must be supplied, in thought at least, before any 
meaning can be communicated by the words. The complete sen¬ 
tence might be, Many men have many minds. 

53. Verbs are often defined to be words of Assertion 
or Affirmation, because they are required for every 
statement or declaration. 

My brother fought throughout the war. Fought is a verb. 
It asserts or affirms what my brother did. It expresses an 
act performed by my brother. 

54. Verbs are also called Time-Words, or Tense- 
Words, because they indicate the time of existence, 
condition, or action. 


Why is a verb so called ? 52. What kind of a word is required in 
tence ? Give illustrations of this. 53. What are verbs often defined to 1 
54. What other name is also applied to verbs ? Why ? 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

Thus the time of going is shown by the forms of the verb 
in the sentences, “ I go” “ I went” “ I shall go.” 

55. Verbs express the existence, the condition, the 
acts, or the actions of persons or things: they affirm, 
deny, ask questions, command; and they indicate the 
time to which reference is made. 

Obs.— Wishes, imprecations, exhortations, entreaties are also 
made by verbs; and certain parts of verbs are also used for other 
purposes. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Verbs in the following sentences , and tell why they 

are verbs . 

The lambs play. The sky is clear. Foxes live in holes. 
The child sleeps. Pigs squeal. The weather is very hot. 
I am thirsty. Send this box to your uncle. Grapes hang 
on the vines. They rested near a brook. The river rises 
rapidly. They saw many sights, and they heard many 
strange things. They will sail to-morrow. Your friends 
desire to meet you. The snow covers the ground. The 
crowd ran away, and scattered. 

Name the other kinds of words in these sentences, bo far as you 
know them. 


VII. 

Words denoting the character or quality of actions 
and of attributes. 

56. Actions and attributes vary in character or 
quality, and in degree or amount. 

A ship sails on the sea. One ship may sail well; another 
may sail badly; a third may sail slowly; a fourth may sail 
very quickly. 

The words well, badly , slowly , very quickly , characterize or 
qualify the act of sailing asserted of the ship. 


ninstrate this. 55. What services are rendered by verbs ? Give examples of 
verbs in these various uses. 56. How may actions and attributes vary ? Explain 
this by examples. 



22 


INTRODUCTION TO 


A lesson may be difficult; or one lesson may be more dif¬ 
ficult than another; or a lesson may be exceedingly difficult. 

“ Difficult” is an adjective expressing the character or 
quality of a lesson. “ More” and “ exceedingly” express dif¬ 
ferences in the character or quality of the difficulty attrib¬ 
uted to “ a lesson.” 

Obs.—T hese words, well, badly, slowly , very quickly , more , exceed¬ 
ingly , express entirely different notions from those signified by 
nouns, adjectives, articles, pronouns, and verbs. They express the 
character or quality ascribed to the actions or attributes ascribed to 
things. 

57. A special class of words is employed to limit or 
qualify actions and attributes. 

Splendidly decorated; brilliantly illuminated; sincerely be¬ 
loved ; sadly disappointed; very bright; extremely ill. 

The actions and attributes expressed by “ decorated,” 
“illuminated,” “beloved,” “disappointed,” “bright,” and 
“ill,” are qualified by the words, “ splendidly” “brilliantly” 
“ sincerely” “sadly” “very” and “extremely” 

58. Words expressing the character or quality of an 
action or attribute, are called Adverbs. 

The words splendidly , brilliantly, sincerely , sadly, very , ex¬ 
tremely, are adverbs. 

59. Adverbs may be employed to limit or qualify 
other adverbs; as, Jenny Lind sang marvellously well. 
Your friend paints very beautifully. 

60. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, 
and to other adverbs to qualify their meaning; as, She 
sings sweetly ; she is entirely helpless ; she rides very grace¬ 
fully. 


ko 5 w^ w are act l ons and attributes limited or qualified? Exemplify this. 
ko' m! a 5u word j expressing the character of actions and attributes called ? 
verbT? other words may Adverbs qualify? Give examples. 60. What are ad 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


23 


Exercises. 

Point out the Adverbs in the following expressions. 

He looked remarkably well. The streams rose rapidly. 
The house was entirely open. The man was wholly un¬ 
known. The boy never saw his father. The family was in 
veiy narrow circumstances. It was strangely effected. 
Many persons would have acted otherwise. The alarm was 
certainly unreasonable. 

Insert Adverbs in the following phrases. 

The birds sing-. The wind blows-. The children 

write-. The morning is-beautiful. The rocks were 

-steep. The moon shines very-. The well is- 

deep. He-leaves home. 

Form sentences containing the following Adverbs. 

There, then, otherwise, rightly, frequently, sometimes, 
quickly, soon, justly, wisely, always, never, not, sweetly, 
cheerfully. 

VIII. 

Words signifying the relation (or direction) of one 
thought to another. 

61 . A word or phrase is often limited by the expres¬ 
sion of its relation to something else, or by the addition 
of something to which its meaning is directed. 

The farmer is ploughing in his field on the hill before us. 
Here the phrase “ is ploughing ” is limited by expressing 
its relation to the farmer’s own field, and the meaning of 
“field” is directed to the particular field “ on the hill,” and 
the meaning of “ hill ” is directed and confined to the field 
in sight, or “ before us.” 

The words “ in,” “ on,” and “ before” express the relations 
of “ ploughing ,” “field,” and “ hilV* to something else; and 


Mention or write down several adverbs in connection with words qualified by 
them. 61. How are words and phrases often limited? Show how this take* 
place. 



24 


INTRODUCTION TO 


direct their meanings respectively to the words “field” 

“hillfi and “ us” 

62. Words employed to express the relations of words 
to something additional, and to give direction in this 
way to their meaning, are called Prepositions. 

“ In,” “on,” “ before,” are prepositions. 

Prepositions are so called because they are usually placed 
before the nouns to which the meaning is directed and con¬ 
fined. 

The wall fell upon him. The falling of the wall was di¬ 
rected to “ him.” The preposition “ upon” precedes “ him” 

Obs.— Prepositions do not always precede the nouns dependent 

upon them, nor are nouns always required with them; as, It was 

spoken of. 

63. A Preposition is a word which expresses the 
relation or direction of the meaning to another word 
or thought. 

Exercises. 

Point out the Prepositions in the following expressions. 

He went from Boston to Savannah. He was wounded in 
the arm. The boat is on the shore, and the ship is in the 
river. He regarded neither what was before him nor what 
was behind him. The carriage rolled down the side of the 
precipice. Coffee and tea are not good without sugar. 

Insert Prepositions in the following sentences. 

Drive the dog-the house. The regiment marched 

-the street. The tower stands-a hill. Much dis¬ 
cussion has arisen-a passage-the book-Deuter¬ 
onomy. Put your hat-your head. The book lies- 

the table. The lamp hung-his head. 

Form sentences with the following Prepositions in them. 

About, above, under, below, in, into, upon, within, with¬ 
out, through, by, to. 

62. What are words expressing the relations of words to something additional 
tailed? Why are Prepositions so called ? Name some prepositions. 63. What is 
a preposition ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


25 


IX. 

Words connecting other words or statements. 

$4. Words and statements may be employed singly 
and separately, or they may be joined together so as 
to present compound ideas. 

Instead of saying, The dog is large; The dog is black; we 
may say, The dog is large and black. Instead of Dogs fight; 
Cats fight; we may say, Dogs and cats fight. 

Large and black ; Dogs and cats , are compound expressions 
representing compound ideas. 

The dog barks and bites; The dog will bite if you strike him, 
are compound statements. 

In these examples, two words or two statements are com 
nected together by the words “ and" And “ if." 

65. Certain words are employed to join other words or 
statements together; such as, and, or , if, but, since, because, 

66. Words which connect together words, clauses, or 
sentences are called Conjunctions. And, if, but, since, 
are conjunctions. 

67. A Conjunction is a word which joins words, 
or sentences, or parts of sentences together. 

The battle was long and bloody. The sun, and the moon, 
and the stars are heavenly bodies. 

The fisherman was drowned because he could not swim. 
I must believe the wonder, since I saw it. 

Obs.— And, but , etc., connect words and statements together in 
a different manner from that in which statements are connected 
together by because, since, etc. The latter class of conjunctions 
indicates a relation of subordination and dependence between the 
propositions. 


64. In what different ways may words and statements be employed? Explain 
this. 65. How are certain words employed ? 66. What name is given to words 
connecting words, clauses, or sentences ? 67. What is a Conjunction ? Give ex¬ 
amples of conjunctions, and of their use. 

2 



INTRODUCTION TO 


26 


• Exercises. 

Point out the Conjunctions in the sentences which follow. 

Henry and Fred are good boys, but Tom and Bob are not 
I will either send or bring it myself. It was a kind, and 
generous and noble act, although it was very hazardous. I 
love reading, because it improves the mind. It was not the 
painter but the carpenter who was killed. He has done 
much good since he came. 

Point out the other kinds of words in these sentences. 

Supply Conjunctions with the following sentences. 

The houses were large,-handsome,-convenient 

-expensive. It must be true-untrue. It must be 

- night -day. Chickens,- ducks,- turkeys, 

-geese are all birds. I told you-I could not go. 

He learns rapidly-he is attentive. We shall lose our 

chance-we do not go soon. Take care- you be 

nurt. I remained-he came. 

Form sentences containing the Conjunctions following. 

And, or, either: nor, neither: because, for, since, till, if. 
that, but, though, unless, lest, yet. 


X. 

Words used to indicate emotion or feeling. 

68. Some words are employed simply for the purpose 
of indicating emotion; such as grief, joy, disgust, sur¬ 
prise, fear. 

Ah! Hurrah! Ugh! Ha! Oh! Alas! are words of this 
kind. 


68. For what purpose are some words simply employed ? 




ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

69. Words simply expressive of emotion are not 
directly connected with any statement or sentence. 

Alas! tlie vessel was wrecked, and my Mend was 
drowned. 

M Alas /” expresses the grief of the speaker, and displays 
his feeling, hut it is not otherwise connected with the state¬ 
ments which follow. 

70. These words may be omitted altogether, or may 
be introduced in any part of the sentence, because they 
are not directly connected with the statement made. 

The vessel, Alas! was wrecked, and my friend was 
drowned. 

The vessel was wrecked, Alas! and my friend was 
drowned. 

The vessel was wrecked, and my friend, Alas! was 
drowned. 

The vessel was wrecked, and my friend was drowned, 
Alas! 

71. Words which may be introduced in any part of 
the sentence are called Interjections—that is, words 
thrown in. 

Ah! Oh! Alas! are Interjections. 

72. An Interjection is a word thrown into a sen¬ 
tence, to express some sudden emotion of the speaker. 

Obs. 1.—Any word or phrase which indicates emotion, without 
making any statement about it, may be used as an interjection. 

“ Strange! that the letter should never have reached me!" 

“ Strange /” is here used as an interjection, and the whole phrase 
is used interjectionally. 


69. Are words expressing emotion merely, directly connected with any state¬ 
ment ? 70. Are such words restricted to any part of the sentence ? Why not ? 
Show this. 71. What are these words called ? Why are they so called ? 72. What 
is an Interjection f 



28 


INTRODUCTION TO 


XI. 


Enumeration of the Classes of Words. 

73. Nine different kinds or classes of words employed 
in language have now been specified. 

74. These several kinds of words are: 

I. Words signifying things, usually called Nouns. 

II. Words signifying qualities or properties connected 
•with things, commonly called Adjectives. 

III. Words determining the application or acceptation of 
nouns, or Articles. 

IV. Words which supply the place of nouns, or Pronouns. 

Y. Words signifying the existence, condition, act, or action 

of things, or Verbs. 

VI. Words signifying the character or quality of actions 
or attributes, or Adverbs. 

VII. Words signifying the relation of one word to another, 
or Prepositions. 

VIII. Words which connect words, clauses, or proposi¬ 
tions together, or Conjunctions. 

IX. Words expressing emotion simply, or Interjections. 

75. These nine classes of words are called Parts of 
Speech, because they are the several constituent parts 
of all speech, and embrace all the kinds of words 
which compose speech. 

73. How many different kinds of words have been specified ? 74. What are the 
nine different kinds of words ? and what their several characters i 75. What are 
these nine kinds of words called f Why t 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


29 


XII. 

Sentences. 

70. Words combined so as to convey a distinct 
meaning form Sentences. 

The leaves are green. Light comes from the sun, 

77. Sentences are of three kinds; simple, complex, 
and compound. 

The night cometh, is a simple sentence. 

The night cometh when no man can work, is a complex 
sentence. 

The night succeeds the day, and the day succeeds the night , 
is a compound sentence. 

78. A Simple Sentence makes a single statement; 

as, The summer is the season of flowers. 

79. A Complex Sentence contains two or more 
statements directly connected with each other—the 
one being limited or modified by the other; as, The 
swallows arrive , ichen the summer returns. 

Here are two statements, the swallows arrive, and the sum¬ 
mer returns. They are directly connected together. The 
arrival of the swallows is limited in time by the return of 
summer. 

Obs.—A complex sentence is formed by the union of two or more 

statements dependent upon each other, through the intervention of 

such conjunctions as when, because, though, that. 

80. A Compound Sentence is a sentence composed 
of two or more statements not dependent on each other; 
as, The summer is pleasant , and it is adorned with flowers. 


76. What do words combined so as to convey a distinct meaning form ? 77. How 
many kinds of sentences are there ? What are they ? 78. What is a Simple Sen- 
tence ? Form simple sentences. 79. What is a Complex Sentence ? Give exam¬ 
ples of complex sentences. 80. What is a Compound Sentence ? Give examples 
of compound sentences. 



30 


INTRODUCTION TO 


Here are two distinct statements independent of each 
other, which are united by the conjunction and. 

Obs.—A compound sentence is formed by uniting two or more in¬ 
dependent statements into one sentence by such conjunctions as 
and , or, but. 


XIII. 

Simple Sentences. 

81. In every sentence there must be something 
spoken of, and something said about what is spoken of. 

Birds fly. “ Birds” are the things spoken of, and what is 
said of them is, that they “fly.” 

Obs.—I n the first and second persons of the verb it is not as evident 
as in the third that something is spoken of, and that something is 
said about what is spoken of. Nevertheless this is the case. In “7 
speak," —is what is spoken of by myself; and speaking is what is 
said by me about myself. In Go—you is understood, and signifies 
the person addressed, about whom, therefore, the speech is made; 
and the order to “go,'' is what is said about you. 

82. What is spoken of is termed the Subject of the 
sentence. 

In the sentences, Birds fly, fishes swim , men walk , we travel , 
the subjects of the several sentences are “ birds“fishes,” 
“men” “we.” 

83. The subject of a sentence must be the designa¬ 
tion or name of the thing spoken of. 

Birds, fishes , men, we are the designations or names of the 
things spoken of. 

84. The subject of a sentence must consist of a noun, 
a word supplying the place of a noun, or a pronoun, or 
a word or phrase used as a noun. 

Birds, fishes , men are nouns. We is a pronoun. 


81. What two things are required in every sentence ? Show this by examples. 
82. What is the thing spoken of called ? Illustrate this. 83. What must the Sub¬ 
ject of a sentence be ? 84. Of what must the subjects of sentences consist ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


31 


In the sentences, To die is the lot of all men; and, To die for 
the right is worthy of all 'praise ; the verb “ to die” and the 
phrase “ to die for the right” are employed as nouns, or are 
used substantively, and constitute the subjects of these 
sentences. 

Obs.—A ny word or words may be used substantively, and form the 
subject of a sentence; as. Twenty is a number; Red is a color; 
TJnder is a preposition; To write Toe's Raven required high genius. 

85. "What is said about the subject is called the 

Predicate. 

Predicate means what is said or affirmed about any thing. 
In the sentences, Birds fly, fishes swim, men walk, we travel t 
it is said of birds that they “fly;” of fishes, that they 
“swim;” of men, that they “ walk;” of the persons repre¬ 
sented by “ we,” that they “ travel.” In other words, flying 
is asserted or predicated of birds; swimming, of fishes; 
walking, of men; and travelling, of the persons denoted by 
“ we.” 

Obs.—W hen the sentence is negative, the negation denies that 
which would otherwise be affirmed, but does not destroy the signifi¬ 
cance of the predicate as being what is said of the subject. Men do 
not fly. “ Flying" is here predicated of men, and then denied by the 
negation. 

86. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predi¬ 
cate. 

This is a consequence of the fact that a sentence is made 
up of something spoken of and of something said about it 

87. The predicate must be a verb, or must contain a 
verb. 

In the sentences, Birds fly, and birds are flying ; men walk, 
and men are walking, the predicates are verbs. The predi¬ 
cate consists of a verb and something else in such sentences 
as, The rose smells sweet; The storm rages fearfully ; but the 
essential part of the predicate is the verb. 

Obs.—T he necessity of a verb in every predicate results from the 
fact that nothing can be said about any thing except by means of a 
verb, which is the part of speech required for every assertion. 


Give examples. 85. What name is given to what is said about the subject? 
What does Predicate mean ? 86. Of what two parts does every sentence consist i 
87. What is required for the predicate ? Show this by examples. 



32 


INTRODUCTION TO 


88. A Simple Sentence may now be defined to be 
a sentence containing a single subject and a single 
verb (or predicate). 

89. The subject of a simple sentence does not neces¬ 
sarily consist of a single word. 

Beautiful colors fade. The most exquisite hues of the evening 
sky disappear. 

Beautiful colors and the most exquisite hues of the evening 
sky constitute the subjects of these two sentences. 

Obs. —In these sentences, “ colors" and “ hues' are alone re¬ 
garded as subjects in the grammatical construction: “ beautif ul 
colors" and “ the most exquisite hues of the evening sky" constitute 
the topics of discourse, determine the meaning and extent of the 
things spoken of, and are called the logical subjects. 

90. The grammatical subject is called the nominative 
in the sentence, because it names what is spoken about. 

The house took fire. House is the nominative in the sen¬ 
tence. It names what is spoken of. It is the name of the 
thing said to have taken fire. 

91. The predicate of a simple sentence does not 
necessarily consist of only a single word. 

The birds are singing. The sky is overcast. The rain is 
•pouring down. The rose smells sweet. The army crossed the 
river. An eagle flew over the village. 

“ Are singing ” “ is overcast ” “ is pouring down? “ smells 
sweet,” “ crossed the river,” “ few over the village” are severally 
the predicates in these sentences, and each of them consists 
of two or more words. 

Obs.— The grammatical predicate is different from the logical predi¬ 
cate. The grammatical predicate consists of the verb alone, either 
in its simple form, as sing, or in its continued form, as are singing. 
The logical predicate includes all that is asserted of the logical 
subject. 


88. How may a Simple Sentence be now defined ? 89. Does the subject of a simple 
sentence consist always of a single word? 90. What is the Grammatical Subject 
called? Why? 91. Does the predicate of a sentence consist always of a single 
Word ? Show this. & 




ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


33 


92. Certain verbs expressive of action require the 
addition of a nonn or pronoun to complete the predi¬ 
cate, by showing on what the action takes effect. 

Thus, in the sentence, The army crossed the river , the sense 
would be incomplete if we were to say, “ the army crossed ,” 
because we require to know what the army crossed , or in 
regard to what the act of crossing was performed. To sat¬ 
isfy this requirement, we must add the name of the thing 
which is the object of the action. In this case, what was 
crossed was the river; and, therefore, the predicate is com¬ 
pleted by saying, The army crossed— the river. 

Obs.—V erbs that thus require the addition of a noun or pronoun, 
are called Transitive Verbs. 

93. The noun or pronoun added to complete the 
predicate of a transitive verb is called the Object of 
the verb. 

“ River ” is the object of the verb “ crossed ” in the sen¬ 
tence, The army crossed the river. 

*94. A simple sentence, then, consists of one subject 
and one predicate; as, Fire burns. The subject and 
the predicate may each consist of one, or of several 
words; as, Bees hum; The busy bee improves each 
shining hour. The grammatical subject consists of a 
noun, or a pronoun, or of something equivalent and 
used as a noun. The logical subject includes all the 
words which describe the subject of discourse. The 
predicate always contains a verb. The grammatical 
predicate consists of the verb only. The logical predi¬ 
cate embraces whatever is said of the logical subject. 
The grammatical predicate sometimes requires to be 


92. What do certain verbs require for the completion of the predicate ? Why ? 
Furnish an explanation of this completion of the predicate. 93. What name is 
given to the word which completes the predicate of a transitive verb ? * 94. Give 
a summary account of simple sentences. 



34 


INTRODUCTION TO 


completed by the addition of a word denoting on what 
the action takes effect, and this word is called the 
object; as, The hoys broke -- the bottle* 

* 95. Subject or nominative, and verb or predicate, 
are the essential parts of every sentence. 

With some verbs an object is required to complete the 
predicate. 

The framework of every sentence is constructed with 
these three parts, or with the first two of them. 


* XIV. 

Complex Sentences. 

98. A Complex Sentence consists of one or more 

simple sentences connected together so that one sen¬ 
tence is limited or modified by the other, or by the 
others. 

The knowledge [that we continually trespass ourselves ], should 
make us ready to forgive the trespasses of others. 

This is a complex sentence. One sentence or proposition 
is, “ the knowledge should make us ready to forgive ,” etc. The 
other sentence or proposition by which this is modified is, “ we 
continually trespass ourselves.” This modification is snown, 
and the two sentences are formed into one by the conjunc¬ 
tion “ that.” 

Obs.—T he forms of complex sentences are very numerous, and 
often very complicated. 

97. In a complex sentence the leading or limited 
proposition is called the principal sentence or clause. 


* 95. What are the essential parts of every sentence ? What third part is some¬ 
times required? * 96. What is a Complex Sentence? * 97. What is the leading 
proposition in a complex sentence called ? 




ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


35 


I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. In this 
sentence, the leading proposition is, “ I know a bank” and 
this is called the principal sentence or clause. 

98. The secondary or limiting proposition is called 
the subordinate sentence or clause. 

I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. Here the 
secondary or limiting proposition is, “ whereon the wild thyme 
grows ” This is called the subordinate sentence or clause. 

Obs.— The principal sentence does not always come first. We may 
say either, I will go, if you will stay ; or, If you will stay, I will go. 


* XV. 

Compound Sentences. 

99. A Compound Sentence is one in which two or 
more simple and independent sentences are joined to¬ 
gether by means of a conjunction; as, Man proposes, but 
God disposes. 

“ Man proposes ” is one simple sentence : “ God disposes ” is 
another simple sentence, independent of the former. The 
combination of the two, by means of the conjunction “ but” 
forms a compound sentence. 


XVI. 

Conclusion. 

* 100. The general nature of words, their various 
kinds, and the manner in which they are combined into 
sentences, have been now explained briefly and simply, 


* 98. What is the secondary proposition in a complex sentence called ? 
* 99. What is a Compound Sentence ? 



36 


INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


so as to furnish an introduction to the study of English 
Grammar. These are the subjects of grammar, but sys¬ 
tematic grammar enters into many details which have 
been disregarded in the preceding sketch of the main 
characteristics of language. 



&imcutm*]r (frugltefe fctmww. 

1. Grammar is the science of language. 

Grammar teaches the nature of words, and the principles* 
which regulate their use, as instruments for expressing the 
movements of the mind. 

2. Grammar is either General or Special. 

General Grammar discovers and explains the relations 
between different classes and forms of words, in accordance 
with the laws of the human mind, and the constitution of 
the organs of speech. 

Special Grammar exhibits the modes in which the words 
of particular languages are employed to show these relations. 

3. Every language has its own special grammar. 

Thus there is Greek Grammar, Latin Grammar, Italian 
Grammar, French Grammar, English Grammar, &c. 

4. English Grammar teaches the correct usage of 
the English Language. 

5. Language is the expression of thought, feeling, 
etc., by means of articulate and significant sounds, or 
of their symbols, written words. 


1. What is Grammar? 2. What are the two kinds of Grammar? 3. Has every 
language its own Grammar ? 4. What does English Grammar teach ? 5. What is 
Language ? 














38 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


0. All sounds are not articulate. All articulate 
sounds are not significant. 

The howi of a dog, the cry of infancy, the scream of pain, 
are not articulate. The notes of music and of singing-birds 
are articulate, but they are not significant of definite thoughts 
and emotions. 

7. Articulate sounds are sounds distinguished by the 
regulated movements of the organs of speech : as, b-a-t , 
bat; c-a-r-p-e-ty carpet. 

8. Sounds are significant when a distinct meaning is 
attached to them, separately or in combination. 

I is a single articulate sound, separately significant in 
English, and denoting the person who speaks; I went , 1 
rode. 

Eye is the same sound represented by a combination of 
letters, and signifies the organ of sight. 

The same sound is significant, in conjunction with other 
sounds, in Ice, Knife , Idle , Iron , Isle, Aisle. 

9. The Grammar of a language includes much more 
than can be included in an elementary text-book. 

Obs. —The Spelling-Book and Dictionary, and habitual practice in 
speaking, reading, and writing, are necessary aids in acquiring a 
knowledge of English Grammar. 


DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 

10. Grammar is usually divided into four parts : Or¬ 
thography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

11. Orthography treats of letters, as the symbols or 


6. Are all sounds articulate ? Are all articulate sounds significant ? 7. What 
are articulate sounds ? 8. When are sounds said to be significant ? Give examples 
of sounds which are both articulate and significant. 9. Is the whole of Grammar 
included in a text-book ? 10. How is Grammar usually divided ? What are the 

four parts of Grammar? 11. What does Orthography treat of i 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 39 

representatives of articulate sounds, and of tlieir proper 
employment in forming the words of the language. 

12. Etymology treats of the nature of words, and 
of their changes. 


Obs. —“Etymology is a knowledge of the changes of words,” 
whether the changes are due to difference of application ; as, a dog 
and to dog: to inflection; as, a dog's tooth , dogging a man's steps: to 
derivation; as, doggishly: or to composition; as, dog-nettle. 

13. Syntax treats of the correct mode of joining 
words together in the formation of sentences. 

Obs.— Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other, 
for the expression of a distinct statement or sentence. It treats also 
of the connection of the parts of a sentence, and of the connection 
of sentences. 

14. Prosody treats of the correct utterance of words 
and of sentences, but it is principally concerned with 
the rules of metrical composition, or verse. 


12. What does Etymology treat of? 13. What does Syntax treat of? 14. What 
does Prosody treat of ? 




PART I, 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 


THE SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 


15. Articulate Sounds constitute the elements of 
Spoken language. 

16. Letters are the symbols or representatives of 
the several elementary sounds of the language. 

They furnish the ultimate divisions or elements of written 
words. 

17. The letters of a language, arranged in their regu¬ 
lar order, are called its Alphabet. 

Obs.—T he Alphabet derives its name from the first two letters oi 
the Greek Alphabet: Alpha—A, Beta—B. 

18. The English Alphabet consists of twenty-six 
letters: 

A, a; B, b; C, c; D, d; E, e; F, f; G, g; H, h; I, i; 
J,j; K, k; L, 1; M, m; N, n; O, o; P, p; Q,q; R, r; 
S, b; T, t; U, u; Y, v; W, w; X, x; Y, y; Z, z. 

Obs.—T he initial sounds of the names of the letters give the usual 
sound or power of the letters, except in the case of F, L, M, N. R, 
S, X, whose power is represented by the final sounds; and H, Q, W, 
Y, whose sound is not represented by their names. 

19. Letters are divided into Yowels and Consonants. 


15. What are the elements of a language ? 16. What are Letters ? 17. What is 
the list of the letters of a language called ? 18. How many letters does the English 
Alphabet contain 1 What are they ? 19. How are the letters divided t 







SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 


41 


20. A Vowel is a sound that can be perfectly uttered 
by itself. 

21. A Consonant is a sound incapable of perfect 
utterance without the aid of a Yowel. 

Obs.—A Consonant ( con-sonans , sounding together), is so called 
in consequence of requiring the help of a vowel for its complete 
utterance. 

22. The Yowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w and y at the 
end of words and syllables. 

Obs.—I t 6eems most correct to regard w and y as always vowels. 

23. All the other letters are Consonants. 

24. Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semi- 
Yowels. 

25. The Mutes cannot be sounded at all without the 
aid of a vowel. 

They are b, p, d, t, k, and c and g hard. 

20. The Semi-Vowels have an imperfect sound by 
themselves. 

They are/, l , m, n, r, s, v, z, x, and c and g soft. 

27. Four of the Semi-Yowels, l, m , n, v, are also 
called Liquids from their flowing sounds. 

28. When two vowels unite in one sound, they form 
a Diphthong; as, oi in oil, ou in house, ea in meat, ee 
in feet. 

29. When three vowels are so united, they form a 
Triphthong; as, ieio in vieiv. 


20. What is a Vowel ? 21. What is a Consonant ? 22. What letters are vowels ? 
23. What letters are consonants ? 24. How are consonants divided ? 25. What 
are Mutes ? What letters are mutes ? 26. What are Semi-Vowels ? What letters 
are semi-vowels ? 27. What consonants are called Liquids ? 28. What is a Diph¬ 
thong? Mention words in which diphthongs occur. 29. What is a Triphthong ? 
Give examples of words containing triphthongs. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

30. Diphthongs are divided into Proper and Im« 
proper. 

A Proper Diphthong has both vowels sounded; as oi in mice. 
An Improper Diphthong has only one of the vowels 
sounded ; as, ea in eat , great. 

31. The Triphthongs in English never have all the 
vowels sounded. 

Obs.—T riphthongs scarcely occur except in words derived from 
foreign languages. 


* CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. 

32. Two series or sets of letters are employed in the 
English language—an alphabet of large characters and 
an alphabet of small characters. 

These differ from each other in size, and generally in shape. 

33. The large characters are called Capitals. They 
are ordinarily used only at the commencement of words 
or of the parts of compound words; as, Dog , Cat , Arch- 
Duke. 

34. The body of words consists always of small let¬ 
ters, when both characters are used. 

35. All the important cases in which Capitals should 
be used, in English, are embraced by the following 
rules: 

Rule I.—A Capital letter should be used at the be¬ 
ginning of every sentence. 

* Divisions and sections marked by an asterisk* maybe omitted the first time that this 
Grammar is studied 


30. How are Diphthongs divided ? What is a Proper, and what an Improper 
Diphthong ? 31. Have any Triphthongs, in English, all the vowels sounded ? 32. 
What two series of letters are employed in English? How do they differ? 33. 
What are the large characters called ? When are they ordinarily used ? 34. What 
letters are used for the body of words ? 35. Give the First Rule for the use of 
Capitals. 



CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. 48 

Rule II.—A Capital should be used at the begin¬ 
ning of every verse or line of poetry. 

Rule III.—A Capital should commence every proper 
name, and the adjectives derived from such names; as, 
Julius Caesar was a Homan. 

Rule IY.—A Capital should commence all names 
of the Deity, all attributes ascribed to Him, and all 
personal and possessive pronouns referring to Him; as, 
The Lord of Lords , the Most High God , He is the 
Almighty Ruler. 

Rule Y.—A Capital should begin all titles, and 
all names of office or dignity used as titles; as, Duke , 
Baron , President , King , Captain , Chancellor , Judge. 

Rule YI.—When common nouns are personified, 
or used as if they were names of persons, they require 
Capitals; as, “ Red Battle stamps his foot.” 

Rule VII.—When words are designed to be pecu¬ 
liarly prominent, they may be written with Capitals, in 
any part of a sentence. 

Obs. —This rule applies to the Titles of Books, to important words 
in Deeds and Public Documents, to Inscriptions, to Bills of all 
sorts, etc. 

Rule VIII.—The Pronoun I and the Interjection 0 
are always written with Capitals. 

Rule IX.—When a proper name or a title consists 
of two or more words, written separately or joined 
with a hyphen, each of the words properly begins with 
a Capital; as, George Washington , New Orleans , Major- 
General. 

Rule X.—The names of the Sciences, and many 


Give the Second Rule. Give the Third Rule. Give the Fourth Rule. What is 
the Fifth Rule ? What is the Sixth Rule ? Repeat the Seventh Rule. Repeat the 
Eighth Rule. State the Ninth Rule. State the Tenth Rule. 



44 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


technical terms of Science and of Art, are written with 
Capitals; as, Astronomy , Medicine , Electrometer . 

Correct the misuse of Capitals and small letters in the following 
examples. 

“ it was a Contest, not so much between the catholic relig¬ 
ion and the protestant Religion, as between catholic Laymen 
and Protestant clergy.” 

“ during the whole Summer the brest fleet had been closely 
Blockaded by admiral sir edward Hawke, while some Frig¬ 
ates under captain duff cruised along the Coast to the south¬ 
ward, from the port of orient to the sands of olonne.” 

“ The royal speech had been drawn up by lord hardwicke, 
and revised by pitt; but when complete, his majesty added 
with his own hand, a Paragraph.” 

“ The Course of divine providence in the Government of 
the world, is represented in scripture under the twofold 
Aspect of general Law and special interposition. 

“ an ironical Criticism on the pastorals in the guardian, 
which took in steele, was followed long afterwards by the 
unsparing Ridicule of the treatise on the art of sinking in 
poetry.” 


SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

36. A Syllable is a distinct sound, composed of one 
or more sounds, produced by a single impulse of the 
voice ; as, a, an , ant; I, inn, inch . 

There must be one vowel at least in every syllable. 

Obs.— In written language, a syllable consists of the letters which 
represent the sounds in the spoken words. 

37. A Word is a syllable, or a combination of sylla¬ 
bles, used as the sign of an idea; as, a, man , can-not , 
be, om-nis-ci-ent. 


36. What is a Syllable? What kind of letter is required in every syllable? 
37. What is a Word? 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 


45 


38. "Words consisting of a single syllable are called 
Monosyllables; of two syllables, Dissyllables; of three 
syllables, Trisyllables; of more than three syllables, 
Toly syllables. 

Ox, good, house, are monosyllables. 

Ox-en , bet-ter, hous-es , are dissyllables. 

Gar-den-er, con-stan-cy, mem-o-ry , are trisyllables. 

Mag-nif-i-cence, in-de-struc-ti-bil-i-ty, are polysyllables. 

39. Words are divided into Simple and Compound. 

Simple words are those which cannot be separated into 
other words ; as, house, honest. 

Compound words are those which may be separated into 
other words; as, whirl-wind, thunder-cloud, after-noon. 

40. Words are divided into syllables by distributing 
them into the parts which are pronounced by separate 
impulses of the voice; thus, mag-nan-im-i-ty. 

41. Monosyllables should never be divided. 

42. Compound words should be divided into the 
simple words which compose them; as, book-case , sea¬ 
shore. 

Prefixes and terminations should be distinguished from 
the words with which they are conjoined; as, brimful , 
game-some , wit-ness , in-tru-sion. 

Obs.—T he terminations dal , dan , dons, slon, tion, tial, timis, 

should not be divided, because each is pronounced by a single effort 

of the voice. 

43. Two vowels, coming together and not forming 
one sound, should be placed in distinct syllables; as, 
cru-el f po-et , de-ni-al. 


38. What are words of one syllable called ?—of two syllables ?—of three sylla¬ 
bles ?—of more than two syllables ? Give examples of each kind. 39. How are 
words divided ? What are Simple Words ? What are Compound Words ? 40. 
How are words divided into syllables? 41. Should monosyllables be divided? 
42. How should Compound Words be divided? 43. How are two vowels coming 
together treated ? 



46 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


44 . A single consonant between two vowels, occurring 
in distinct syllables, is usually joined to the second syl¬ 
lable ; as, de-light , bri-dal. 

Obs.—T here are many exceptions to this rule; but the genera^ 
principle is, that syllables should, if possible, begin with a con¬ 
sonant. 

45. Two consonants following a long vowel should 
be joined to the second syllable, if they may together 
begin a word ; as, ta-hle, sti-Jie. 

But if they follow a short vowel, or cannot begin a word, 
they should he divided between the two syllables; as, tab-let , 
un-der, el-bow , cof-jin. 

46. When three consonants come together, they 
should not be separated, if they can begin a word, and 
follow a long vowel; as, de-throne , destroy. 

47. Words of more than one syllable may be divided, 
in writing or in printing, at the end of a line; but a 
syllable should not be divided. 

Obs.—I t is not advisable to divide a word in this way when a single 
syllable, consisting of a single letter, either terminates one line or 
commences the other. Thus, i-deality, miser-y , should not be divided 
in this manner between two lines. 


44. With what syllable should a single consonant bet ween two vowels be joined ? 
45. How are two consonants coming together in the middle of a sentence arranged ? 
When should they be divided between the two syllables ? 46. What is the distri¬ 
bution of three consonants coming together? 47. How may words be divided 
b«*ween two lines. 



PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


48. Etymology is divided into three parts : Classi¬ 
fication, Inflection, and Derivation. 

I. Classification treats of the different kinds of words. 

II. Inflection treats of the changes which certain classes 
of words undergo in order to express different relations of 
their meaning. 

III. Derivation treats of the modes in which words are 
formed. 

49. The structure of a sentence shows why words are 
of different hinds, and why some words are changed in 
form to express changed relations of their meaning. 

50. A Sentence expresses a distinct thought, and 
always consists of at least two parts; as, snow falls ; the 
sun — is shining ; the shoe—pinches my foot. 

51. The two parts which are essential in every sen¬ 
tence, are called the Subject and the Predicate. 

In this sentence, snow falls, snow is the Subject, and falls is 
the Predicate. 

52. The Subject of a sentence is what is spoken 
about. 

I—write ; come — {you); stars — shine. /, you, and stars are 
Subjects. 


48. How is Etymology divided ? 49. What does the structure of a sentence 
show ? 50. What does a sentence express ? How many parts must every sen¬ 
tence contain ? 51. What are the two essential parts in every sentence called? 
52. What is the Subject of a sentence ? 


17 






48 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


53* The Predicate of a sentence is what is said 
about the Subject. 

Write, come , and shine are the Predicates of the sentences 
I write ; come {you); stars shine. 

54. The Subject and the Predicate are expressed by 
different kinds of words. 

The Subject is expressed by a word which names what is 
spoken of. This word is called a noun. § 69. 

The Predicate is always expressed by a word declaring 
existence, either simply or under some condition; as, fishes 
swim. Here swim is the Predicate. Swim is a verb. § 73. 

55. The Predicate is sometimes expressed by a single 
word; as, falls, in the sentence snoiv falls; sometimes 
by two words ; as, is falling, in snow—is falling ; some¬ 
times by more words than two ; as, 'pinches my foot , in 
the shoe—pinches my foot . 

56. The Predicate often requires the addition of a 
word or phrase to name what is acted on. This word 
or phrase is called the Object. 

Thus, heat melts — wax. 

The statement or sentence is incomplete till the thing is 
named which is melted by heat. Wax is the Object. It is 
the thing acted on by heat. It completes the Predicate melts. 

57. The Predicate may be further enlarged by words 
explaining the manner of the action; as, Fire melts 

wax rapidly . 

Rapidly is a word of different kind from fire , or wax , or* 
melts. Rapidly is an adverb. § 74. 


53. What is the Predicate of a sentence ? 54. Are the Subject and the Predicate 
expressed by words of the same kind? By what kind of word is the Subject 
expressed? By what kind the Predicate? 55. How many words are rcq^re^ for 
the Predicate ? 56. What does the Predicate often require to complete r ? W oat 
is this word called ? 57. How may the Predicate be further enlarged ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 


49 


58. The Subject and the Object, or either of them, 
may be enlarged by haying their attributes expressed ; 
as, Great heat melts hard iron. 

Great and hard express attributes of heat and iron, and 
are words ot a different kind trom heat , or iron , or melts. 
Great and hard are called adjectives. g 71. 

59- Instead of naming the Subject or the Object of 
a sentence, another word may be used in the place of 
the name ; as, Fire is hot. It melts wax. Here it stands 
for fire. 

It is one of a class of words called pronouns. § 72. 

60. The Subject and the Object of a sentence, or 
either of them, may be qualified by the mention of the 
relation in which they stand to something else ; as, The 
carpenter's axe cut off the dog's foot. 

Carpenter's indicates the possessor of the axe; dog's the 
owner of ilaefoot. 

Carpenter's and dog's are inflections of the words carpenter 
and dog. §§ 162,192. 

61. The kinds of words and the forms of words are 
thus varied according to the use which is made of them 
in the construction of sentences. 

Exercises. 

Poinl oui ihe Subjects and the Predicates in the following sentences. 

Ships sail. Winds blow. Babies cry. Hens cluck. The 
vessel was wrecked. The breakers dashed upon the shore. 
I have lost my new umbrella. The blacksmith mended the 
plough. The boys leamt their lessons. The man’s arm was 
cut off. The farmer ploughed the land. We walked slowly. 
The warm weather expanded the buds. 


58. How may the Subject and the Object be enlarged ? 59. May a different kind 
of word be used in place of the Subject or of the Object ? 60. How may the Sub¬ 
ject or the Object be qualified? What is this change of form called? 61. How 
are the kinds and forms of words varied ? 




50 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Part I. 

THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

62. There are nine different kinds of words, or Parts 
of Speech, in English. 

63. The Parts of Speech in English are: the Article; 
the [Noun-Substantive, Substantive, or] Noun; the 
[Noun-Adjective, or] Adjective; the Pronoun; the 
Verb ; the Adverb ; the Preposition ; the Conjunction; 
and the Interjection. 

64. Of these nine parts of speech, the Noun, the 
Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, and, in some in¬ 
stances, the Adverb, are inflected in English. 

The Article, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the 
Inteijection receive no inflection. 

65. These parts of speech may be arranged, under 
three general heads—Nouns, Verbs, and Particles. 

In this division, the Noun includes the Noun, the Article, 
and the Pronoun. 

The Verb, including the Participle, forms a class by itself. 

The Particles embrace the Adverb, the Preposition, the 
Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

66. The Noun and the Verb constitute the essential 
parts of speech, because no sentence can be complete 
without them ; and they are sufficient by themselves to 
form a sentence ; as, dogs bark ; children play . 


62. How many Parts of Speech are there in English ? 63. What are the several 
parts of speech in English ? 64. What parts of speech are inflected ? and what 
are uninflected ? 65. Under what general head may all the parts of speech be 
arranged ? How are the parts of speech distributed in this division ? 66. Which 
are the essential parts of speech ? and why ? 



THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 51 

The Noun furnishes the Subject of a sentence; the Verb 
furnishes the Predicate. 

Obs.—A pronoun may take the place of the noun; as, I will; you 
saw it. 

67. The other parts of speech are secondary, as sen¬ 
tences cannot be made with them alone, and as they 
are significant only by their connection with nouns and 
verbs, 


THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

68. An Article is a word put before a noun to limit 

its signification ; as, a man, the man ; an ox, the oxen. 

A, an, and the are Articles. 

69. A Noun is the name of any thing. 

The Noun properly includes the Noun-Substantive and 
the Noun-Adjective. 

70. A Noun is the name of a thing conceived to have 
an independent existence; as, bird, sea, forest, sun, 
virtue. 

Obs. —A Noun may be the name of material things; as, sun , sugar , 
ice : or of things not material; as, gentleness , truth. 

71. An Adjective is a word joined to a Noun, to 
name some quality or property aseribed to it; as, good, 
green, young ; a good man, green grass, young lambs. 

72. A Pronoun is a word used in the place of a 
noun ; as, I, you, their ; this, that, those. 

Obs.— Pronouns are either Substantive or Adjective, and serve as 
substitutes for Nouns-Substantive or Nouns-Adjective. 


67. Which are the secondary parts of speech ? and why ? 68. What is an Article ? 
69. What is a Noun ? 70. What is a Noun the name of? Write down a list of 
such words. 71. What is an Adjective ? Write down a list of adjectives. 72. 
What is a pronoun ? Give examples of pronouns. 



52 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


73. A Verb is a word which denotes being, a condi¬ 
tion of being, or action; as, I am, I sleep, I move, I 
build ; I am struck. 

74. An Adverb is a word joined to a Verb, an Ad¬ 
jective, or another Adverb, to express some qualifica¬ 
tion of the word to which it is joined ; as, He speaks 
well; a very warm day ; she recovered very rapidly. 

75. A Preposition is a word used before Nouns 
and Pronouns to indicate their relations to other words 
in the sentence ; as, The sailor fell from the masthead. 
Here from shows that the masthead was the place 
whence the falling commenced. 


76. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, and sentences together; as, She isfair, 
and young , and good ; Tom and Bob rode on horseback, 
but were both tired by the ride. 

In these examples, the Adjectives fair , young , good, are con¬ 
nected together by the conjunctional/ so are the nouns 
Tom and Bob. The sentences or parts of sentences, rode on 
horseback , and were tired by the ride , are connected together 
by the conjunction but. 

In the conditional proposition, It will rain , if the wind 
changes , the sentences it will rain and the wind changes , are 
joined together by the conjunction if. 

77. An Interjection is a word which expresses some 
sudden emotion of the speaker: as, Oh / Ah ! Alas ! Lo! 
he cometh. Hush ! bonny babe, hush ! and be still . 


73. What is a Verb? Mention several verbs. 74. What is an Adverb? Give 
®r a ^ S i« f „ a n Ver - b8 - J 5 ' , Wh e at if ? a Preposition? Name somf prepositions 
Interjection I Name etme inteSSfonr“ P ° f con j unctio “- What is an 




THE ARTICLES. 


53 


* Exercises. 

Point o*l ihe Paris of Speech in the following expressions : 

A warm day. Beautiful pictures. I found my hat. This 
is it. Oh! I have cut my finger. Our cousins have gone 
away, and they will not come hack soon. Bright colors 
charm savages. A lion. An ape. The swallows. Green 
fields. The cool breezes. Your friends. They left our 
house before day. Yellow, and red, and blue, and purple 
hyacinths. Put them on the table. Alas! they will fade 
rapidly. That is my slate. You are very late. I am here. 
The nest fell down, but the eggs were not broken. Birds 
of passage come from a distance. 


THE ARTICLES. 

78. The Articles are a or an , and the. 

A or an is called the Indefinite Article. The is called the 
Definite Article. 

79. The Indefinite Article a or an is used when an 
individual of a class is spoken of, without any particu¬ 
lar member being alluded to ; as, a house , a garden. 

80. The Definite Article the is used, when a partic¬ 
ular individual or. particular individuals are spoken of; 
as, the house , the garden. 

A house means any house; the house , some particular 
house : a garden signifies any garden, without distinction ; 
the gardens points out certain particular gardens. 

Obs.—T he Definite Article is used before a noun denoting a species 
composed of individuals; as, The elephant is a sagacious animal. 

It is not used before nouns signifying a whole species not made up 
of individuals; as, Bread is the staff of life; Lead is a heavy metal. 


78. What are the Articles ? What are they called respectively ? 79. When is 
the Indefinite Article used ? 80. When is the Definite Article used ? 




54 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


81. The Indefinite Article a or an is used only with 
nouns signifying a single thing; as, a churn , an ox , a 
basket. 

Obs.—I t is used with nouns of multitude; as, a crowd, a host, an 
army a score, a hundred: and also before the adjectives few and 
many followed by plural nouns; as, A few books ; a great many men. 

82. The Definite Article the is used with nouns signi¬ 
fying either a single thing or several things ; as, the tree , 
the trees. 

83. A is used before all consonants except silent h, 
before long u, and before w and y / as, a cow , a hat, a 
unit, a ewe, a tveek, a year. 

An is used before all other vowels, and before silent 
h ; as, an ant, an eye, an inch, an ounce, an onion, an urn , 
an hour. 

An is also used before polysyllables beginning with h 
aspirate (or sounded), when the accent falls on the second 
syllable, unless h precedes the long sound of u. Thus we 
say, an historical treatise , but a humiliating fact 
The Article a or an was originally the numeral one , and 
is still sometimes so used ; as, a dollar an ounce. 

Exercises. 

Prefix the Indefinite Article to the following nouns : 

Bird, horse, aunt, uncle, watch, youth, river, hoof, history, 
art, heir, hand, hair, herb, union, orange, lemon, ear, church, 
stick, yard, hen. 

Correct the following errors : 

An histoiy, a honor, a ant, an wish, an nag, a animal, an 
ewe, a artist, an year, a heiress, an university, an knight, a 
idiom, an lady, an unit, a hysterical attack, an hypocrite. 


‘ 81. With what kind of words is the Indefinite Article used? 82. With what 
kind of words is the Definite Article used ? 88. When should a, and when should 
an he employed. 



THE NOUN-SUBSTANTIVE 


55 


THE NOUN. 

84. A Noun is the name of a thing; as, bird, sea , 
forest, etc. 

Obs. 1.—Any word, belonging to any part of speech, becomes a 
noun when used as the name of a distinct thing ; as. Writes is a verb. 
Writes is here a noun, because used to name a particular word. 

Obs. 2.—Noun-Substantive is the most correct; Substantive the 
most convenient; and Noun the most familiar and inaccurate desig¬ 
nation of this part of speech. 

85. Nouns are divided into two principal classes, 
Proper and Common. 

86. Proper Nouns, commonly called Proper Names, 
are such as name individuals, as, Richard, Napoleon , 
London. 


Obs.—P roper nouns may become Common when they signify more 
individuals than one, or are employed to represent a class ; as, The 
Bacons , the Galileos , and the Newtons ; He is a Solomon. 

Yet such words are better regarded as still proper names when 
they denote a race, a dynasty, or a family; as, The Jews, the Ccesars , 
the Plantagenets. 

87. Common Nouns denote a class of things, and 
may be applied to any member of the class ; as, man , 
dog, state, city, sheep, bread. 

Obs.—C ommon nouns become proper nouns, or parts of proper 
names, by being used as names of individuals ; as, Charleston Har¬ 
bor , Harper's Ferry , Mobile Bay. 

88. Common nouns are divided into Concrete, Ab¬ 
stract, Collective, and Verbal. 

Obs.—O ther divisions and subdivisions of nouns have been pro¬ 
posed, but it is inexpedient to consider them particularly here. 


84. What is a Noun-Substantive ? WTiat is it usually called ? 85. What are the 
two principal classes of Nouns ? 86. What is a Proper Noun ? Give examples of 
proper nouns. 87. What is a Common Noun ? Give examples of common 
nouns. 88. How are common nouns divided ? 



56 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


89. Concrete Nouns signify things having an ac¬ 
tual existence, or being supposed to have it; as, hand, 

sky, brass, unicorn. 

Obs. —Such words as iron, brass , corn , wheat , cotton are called 
Material Nouns. 

90. Abstract Nouns are the names of qualities and 
properties considered apart from the things in which 
they exist; as, knowledge, goodness, density, virtue . 

Obs.— Words of this kind do not express separate existences, but 
only abstractions framed by the mind from the consideration of the 
existences which they characterize. They are expressed as attributes 
of the things to which they belong, by employing adjectives or par- 
ticipials; as, a good writer , a dense thicket , a virtuous ruler , a know¬ 
ing politician. When the attributes are considered apart from the 
things in which they exist, they receive names and form Abstract 
Nouns. 

91. Collective Nouns, or Nouns of Multitude, de¬ 
note many individuals regarded as forming one whole 
or aggregate; as, a croiud, a regiment, a fleet. 

Obs. 1.—The things signified by collective nouns exist only 
through the existence of their constituent parts. They have a real 
existence, but it is derived from the conjunction of the separate 
existences of which they are composed. They always involve, 
therefore, the notion of plurality. 

Obs. 2.—Collective nouns have a singular signification, when the 
union of the parts constituting; the conception is the predominant 
thought. In this proposition, The regiment was scattered , the union 
of the soldiers in one body, and the destruction of that union, are 
the topics most forcibly presented to the mind. The singular significa¬ 
tion, therefore, prevails. In the sentence, The crew were mutinous, 
the rebellious and lawless conduct of the several members of the 
crew attracts attention, and a plural sense predominates. 

92. Verbal Nouns are those which are formed by 
employing certain parts of the verb as names or nouns; 
as, Learning is more precious than gold; he ivent to see his 
bet rothed; to err is human, to forgive, divine. 

Obs. 1.—The Infinitive is used in all languages as a noun, for it 
conveys simply the notion contained in the verb, and gives a name 
to it. 


89. What are Concrete Nouns? Mention several concrete nouns. 90. What are 
Abstract Nouns ? Specify some-abstract nouns. 91. What are Collective Nouns 1 
Name some collective nouns. 92. What are Verbal Nouns ? Give examples of 
such nouns. 



THE NOUN-SUBSTANTIVE. 


57 


Obs. 2. —Verbal nouns, in the form of the Present Participle, are 
not really participles, or were not so originally. They were true 
. nouns, formed from the verb by adding the termination -ung, which 
was afterwards changed into -ing. 

93. Diminutives and Augmentatives belong, for 
tlie most part, to the class of Concrete Nouns. 

Obs. 1.— Diminutives are not numerous in the English language, 
and augmentatives are extremely rare. 

Obs. 2. —These kinds of nouns are of little grammatical import¬ 
ance in English, except in relation to the forms which they assume 
with respect to the primitive words from which they are derived. 

91. Diminutives are words expressing by their forms 
some diminution of the ideas denoted by the words 
from which they are formed; as, stream, stream-let; 
river, rivu-let; dear, dar-ling; man, man-nihin. 

Obs. 1.—Diminutives frequently indicate grace, neatness, tender¬ 
ness, or atfection ; as ,fond,fond-ling ; Ellen, Nell-y. 

Obs. 2.— Diminutives sometimes imply contempt; as, Icing , king¬ 
let ; lord , lord-ling. 

95. Augmentatives are words which denote increase 
or excess of what is named by the simple words from 
which they are derived; as ,frocj, bull-frog. 

Obs. — Bull-frog is a very unsatisfactory example of an augmenta¬ 
tive, because it is a compound word. But there are scarcely any pure 
and indubitable augmentatives in English. The nearest approach 
to such words is furnished by a few terms ending in ard or art , such 
as drunk-ard , lag-gard , brag-gart. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Nouns in the following phrases and sentences. 

A white rose ; a bright day; a cloudless sky; wild beasts 
bad weather; running waters; the wind is high; the way is 
long; the tire burns; the axe is dull. Piety and virtue are 
the noblest accomplishments; the kittens frolic; bacon is 
made from hogs; the fields are green; great wealth; much 
prudence; many cares. 


93. To what class of nouns do Diminutives and Augmentatives belong? 
rf4. \V oat are diminutives ? 95. What are augmentatives ? 

3* 




58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Tell to which division of nouns each of Ihe following words 

belongs. 

Roanoke, regiment, William tlie Conqueror, kingdom, 
America, man, tree, Byron, duckling, stream, eyelet, gold, 
people, mob, gladness, John, iron, poplar, Susan, beauty, 
wagon, paper, strength, knife, fork, wisdom, army, writing, 
book, reading, congregation, sheep, sleep. 


THE ADJECTIVE. 


96. An Adjective is a word which expresses some 
quality, property, or attribute of a noun ; as, a fine 
house , where the quality of excellence, fineness , is as¬ 
cribed to a house. 

Obs. 1.—An adjective has no meaning alone. It always denotes 
something supposed to exist in an object. It cannot he used with 
out a noun, expressed or understood. 

Obs. 2.—In such expressions as The rose smells sweet , which has a 
different meaning from the rose smells sweetly , the adjective sweet 
qualifies the noun or name implied in the predicate smells, and is 
equivalent to the rose has a sweet smell. 

Obs. 3.—Adjectives readily become nouns, and change the part of 
speech to which they belong; as, The merchant's goods; the evils of 
delay. 

This results from the employment of words signifying qualities, 
for the things in which the qualities reside. 

Adjectives are also used as nouns in consequence of the suppres¬ 
sion of the nouns to which they refer; as, (h'een is 'pleasing to the 
eye; namely, a green color. 

Obs. 4.—Nouns are often used adjectively in English ; as, A gold 
ring , a stone jar. Nouns so used frequently unite with the nouns 
qualified by them, bein<* first joined with a hyphen, and after¬ 
wards forming compound words; as, an iron bowl, iron-mould, an 
ironmonger. 

Obs. 5.—Adjectives qualify nouns in two diverse modes; as, A 
strong horse; the horse is strong. In the former case, the adjective 
is used attributively, to express a quality recognized in the horse. 
In the latter case it is used predicatively, to ascribe the quality of 
strength to the horse. An adjective, therefore, may be employed 
either as an attribute or as a part of a predicate. 

97. Adjectives may be divided into two classes— 
adjectives denoting quality, and adjectives denoting 


96. What is an Adjective ? 97. Into what classes may adjectives be divided ? 




THE NOUN-ADJECTIVE. 59 

number or order; as, good, bad; two, three, four; 
second, third. 

Adjectives denoting quality are called simply Adjectives. 
Adjectives denoting number or order are called Numerals. 
They often assume the character of pronouns. 

98. Adjectives usually have Abstract Nouns corre¬ 
sponding to them; as, strong, strength; wise, wisdom; 
just, justice ; prudent, prudence. 

Such abstract nouns are usually formed from the adjec¬ 
tives. 

Obs.— The adjective expresses a quality attached to an object. 
This quality requires a name. The quality is an ideal, though not 
separate existence. The name of the quality is a noun—an abstract 
noun. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Adjectives in the following phrases and sentences. 

A bright morning. A sweet nosegay. The wind is cold. 
Noble actions and deeds unjust and cruel. A dreary winter. 
The ground feels soft. The cheerful fire. An old hat and 
a new coat. Crude iron. Iron ore. The Duke’s splendid 
mansion. A quarrelsome boy. Little lambs. A quiet dis¬ 
position. Studious habits. An affectionate heart. We 
received an agreeable surprise. 

Join appropriate Adjectives with the following nouns. 

A-wall, the-army,-mountains,-brooks, 

- fields,- pens, - tools, a -journey, a - 

spectacle, a - life, the - sky, the -waves, a- 

river,-industry,- knowledge,-silver,-food, 

- aims, a - ambition, - sleep, - death, - 

talents. 


What are they respectively termed ? 98. What kind of nouns correspond to 
adjectives ? 















ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


60 


NUMERALS. 

99. Numeral Adjectives are adjectives employed 
to designate relations of number; such as, one , two , 
three; first , second , third ; double , triple , quadruple. 

Obs.—T he peculiarity which distinguishes numeral from other 
adjectives is, that they do not denote qualities or properties inhe¬ 
rent in things signified by nouns, but only certain separable accidents 
of number, resulting from the aggregation of things, from the order 
in which they are arranged, and from the relation of their parts or 
of their combinations. Hence, numeral adjectives, unlike other 
adjectives, may be used absolutely, and stand alone, without refer¬ 
ence to any particular noun understood, as in arithmetical calcula¬ 
tions. 

100. The numeral adjectives may be divided into 
four classes—Cardinal, Ordinal, Multiplicative, and 
Distributive; as, one , two ; first , second ; simple , double ; 
bi-partite, tri-parlite. 

101. The Cardinal Numerals denote number alone, 
without referring to the order of succession; as, Ten 
men ; ninety sheep ; a thousand feet. 

The Cardinal Numerals are: 

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, 
eleven, twelve. 

Thirteen (= three + ten); fourteen (= four + ten); etc. 
Twenty (= twain-ty, or two tens); thirty (= three-ty, 
thretty, or three tens); etc. 

Hundred, thousand, million, etc. These are usually nouns. 

102. The Ordinal Numerals denote the order in 
which things occur, with relation to the number of like 
things which have preceded them; as, The fourth man ; 
the tenth sheaf; the hundredth link. 

The Ordinal Numerals are: 

First, second, third; 


99. What are Numeral Adjectives ? 100. Into what classes may numeral adjec¬ 
tives be divided ? 101. What do the Cardinal Numerals denote Name cardinal 
numbers. 102. What do the Ordinal Numerals denote ? 



NUMERALS, 


61 


Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, etc.; 

Twentieth, thirtieth, fortieth, etc.; 

Hundredth, Thousandth, Millionth, etc., used also as 
nouns. 

Obs.— In speaking of the precedence of more than one thing, the 
arrangement of the Ordinal should be attended to, so as to avoid in¬ 
correctness or ambiguity. We should say, the first two or thefirst three 
boys in a cla s ; not the two first, nor the three first. The first tiro and 
the first three mean that two and three boys respectively are taken 
as an aggregate or unit, and are said to be superior to all the other hoys 
in the class. The two first and the three first would signify that there 
were two or three boys , who were all first. We may say, however, 
the two first men in the Whig and Democratic Parties, because this 
denotes only a single first man in each. So, our two first parents. 

103. The Multiplicative Numerals denote the 
number of times that a thing is increased or multi¬ 
plied ; as, twofold , double. 

Obs.—T here are two forms of multiplicative numerals. 

One form is derived from the English cardinal numbers by adding 
the termination fold ; as, two-fold, threefold, fourfold. 

The other form, exactly equivalent, is derived from the Latin; as, 
double, triple, or treble, quadruple, quintuple, etc. 

104. The Distributive Numerals denote the dis¬ 
tribution of an aggregate into distinct numerical parts ; 
as, single , bi-partite, tri-partite, etc. 

Obs. 1. —The distributive numerals are often expressed by the 
cardinal numbers used substantively, after a preposition; as, by 
twos, by threes, by fours ; two by two, three by three ; also two and 
two. 

Obs. ’ll.—Binary, ternary, quaternary, quinary appear to be dis¬ 
tributives. 

Trine , quartile, sextile may also be regarded in the same light, 
unless a class of partitives is distinguished from the distributives. 

105. There are several other numerals which are not 
classified under distinct heads. 

Obs. 1 .—Primary, secondary, tertiary are not simply ordinals, for 
they imply precedence in dignity or rank, as well as in order. 

Obs. 2.—There are many numeral forms belonging to other parts 
of speech which may be noticed here. 

t Half, quarter (quartern), quart, tithe, are partitive or fractional, 

and are employed both as nouns and adjectives. 

To halve, to quarter, to tithe, to decimate, are distributive verbs. 

Unity, singleness, duality, trinity, quaternity, are distributive 
nouns. 


Name Ordinal Numbers. 103. What do the Multiplicative Numerals denote ? 
Mention multiplicatives. 104. What do the Distributive Numerals denote? 
Specify distributives. 105. Are there any other numerals than the kinds specified ? 



62 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Simplicity, duplicity, triplicity, multiplicity, are Multiplicative 
Nouns. 

To double, to treble. to quadruple, are Multiplicative Verbs. 

There are Ordinal, Distributive, and Multiplicative Adverbs. 

Ordinal Adverbs— (or firstly ), secondly, thirdly ,/ourthly. 
Primarily , secondarily. 

Distributive Adverbs— Singly, quarterly, {daily, weekly , 
monthly, yearly). 

multiplicative Adverbs— Simply, doubly, trebly. 

Once, twice, thrice, (Jour timet). 


Exercises. 

Point out the Numerals in the following examples, and distinguish 
them according to their kinds. 

There are sixty minutes in one hour, and twenty-four 
hours in one day. There were a hundred and twenty-five 
guns on the fortifications. This is the twenty-seventh day 
of March. January is the first, February the second, and 
March the third month of the twelve. A triple cord is not 
easily broken. This is a double blanket. Grammar is 
quadripartite, or is divided into four parts. There is only a 
single page lost. 

Then taking thrice three hairs from off her head, 

Them trebly braided in a threefold lace. 

If every tenth sheep be taken out of a flock of one hundred 
sheep, nine-tenths, or ninety sheep will be left. 

PRONOUNS. 

106. A Pronoun is a word used in the place of a 
noun. 

Obs.— The common definition, that a pronoun is a word used 
instead of a noun, is inaccurate. It is scarcely possible to substitute 
a noun for the personal pronoun of the first or second person, for 
the interrogative, or for the relative pronouns. But a pronoun 
always occupies the place, and receives the construction of a noun, 
either substantive or adjective. * 

107. Pronouns are either Substantive or Adjective 
Pronouns; as, lie , they ; these , those. 


106. What is a Pronoun ? 107. What are the two kinds of pronouns f 



PRONOUNS. 63 

108. Tlie substantive pronouns are called Personal 
Pronouns. 

109. The Personal Pronouns denote Person. 

Person is the relation of the subject to the predicate, 
according as the latter is applied to the speaker, to some¬ 
thing spoken to, or to something spoken of; as, I speak , 
speak you, he speaks. 

Obs.—I t seems almost impracticable to give a clear and distinct 
definition of the term person; but, a knowledge of the application 
of the word is readily acquired by attending to the significance of 
the personal pronouns. 

110. The are three personal pronouns; namely, the 
pronouns of the First, Second, and Third Persons. 

They are I and we, for the first person ; thou and you, for 
the second person ; and he, she, it, they, for the third person. 

111. The first person denotes the speaker; the second 
person denotes the person spoken to; and the third 
person denotes what is spoken of; as, I went; will you 
go ? she has gone. 

Obs. 1.—To the personal pronouns may be added the indefinite 
or indeterminate pronoun, One; as, One looks foolish , when one does 
such things. 

Obs. 2 .—Self is also used in composition with the personal and 
possessive pronouns to form a reflexive pronoun ; as, myself , thy¬ 
self, himself, herself, itself, ourself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, 
themselves. Self was originally a noun. Its substantive character 
still appears when it is united with own ; as, my own self. 

112. The Adjective Pronouns are divided into 
Possessive, Relative, Interrogative, Demonstrative, 
Distributive, and Indefinite. 

Obs.—T he interrogative pronouns are, for the most part, identical 
in form with the relatives; and have been well characterized as 
“ Relatives in search of an Antecedent.” 


108. What are the Substantive Pronouns called ? 109. What do the Personal 
Pronouns denote? What is meant by Person? 110. How many personal pro¬ 
nouns are there ? and what are they ? 111. What does the first person denote ? 
What the second? What the third? 112. How are the Adjective Pronouns 
divided ? 




64 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


113. Possessive Pronouns express ownership or 

possession, with relation to the things designated by 
the nouns which they qualify; as, my gun —the gun 
which belongs to me; your hat —the hat which belongs 
to you. 

114. The possessive pronouns are my, thy, his , her, 
its , our , your , their , own. 

My and our are the possessive pronouns of the first 
person. 

Thy and your are the possessive pronouns of the second 
person. 

His , her, its , their are the possessive pronouns of the 
third person. 

Own is applied to all the persons. It never stands by 
itself, but is always conjoined with one or other of the 
personal possessives, and may be combined with any of 
them. It intensifies the expression of personality or appro¬ 
priation. 

“ My own, my dear, my native land.*’ 

Obs.—T he possessive pronouns, my, thy, etc., are adjectives, and 
always require a noun to be expressed. We cannot say, it is my; 
but we say, it is my pen. The possessive cases do not permit the 
use of a noun. We say, it is mine , as we say it is Johns; but we 
cannot say, it is mine pen. 

Some confusion has been occasioned by the use of the forms mine 
and thine as possessive adjectives before a vowal or silent h ; as 
mine age, thine honor, though this graceful usage has been nearly 
abandoned. But mine and thine in tins connection are only euphonic 
substitutes for my and thy. They are, however, pure Anglo-Saxon 
adjective pronouns. 

115. Relative Pronouns are those which refer to 
some noun or pronoun, which precedes them in con¬ 
struction, and usually in position; as, Saddle the horse 
which I rode yesterday. 

Which is the relative, and refers to the noun horse which 
precedes it 


113. What do Possessive Pronouns express ? 114. What are the possessive prc 
nouns ? What are the possessive pronouns of the different persons ? 115. What 
are Relative Pronouns ? 



PKONOUNS 


65 


The noun or pronoun which precedes the relative, and 
to which the relative refers, is called the antecedent. 
Horse is the antecedent in the example given. 

O bs -—A relative pronoun, besides its special pronominal function 
of representing another word, acts also as a link of connection be¬ 
tween the clauses of a sentence, and supplies the place of a con¬ 
junction. 

116. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, 
what; that, as. 

The compound relative pronouns are ichoso, whosoever , 
whoever , whichsoever , whichever , whatso , whatsoever , whatever. 

Obs.—T That is peculiar in meaning and construction. In modern 
usage it has no antecedent. It includes the relative and the antece¬ 
dent in one word, and is equivalent to that which. Do what I bid 
you—do that ivhich l bid you. _ So, that may be used alone for what; 
as, do that Ibid you , but this idiom is scarcely in vogue any longer. 

Who, that , and as are never joined adjectively with a noun. 

117. Who is used with reference to persons; ivhich, 
with reference to animals and inanimate things. That 
is often employed instead of who and ivhich, and is ap¬ 
plied to persons, animals, and things indifferently. 

The songstress who charmed us. The birds which sang so 
sweetly. 

The boys that shouted , the girls that screamed , the dogs that 
yelped , and the thunder that roared , all contributed to the 
general din. 

Obs. 1.—In early times who was often used to signify things, and 
which more frequently to refer to persons. 

Obs. 2. —The relatives which and what are sometimes followed by 
the nouns to which they refer; as, I know not by what fatality it 
happened; Which sayings are allegorical. In such cases the antece¬ 
dent is transposed. I know not that fatality by which it happened; 
The sayings are allegorical which are spoken of. 

The use of what in these transpositions is remarkable, because it 
cannot take any proper antecedent. It seems to be employed only 
when therehs an indirect interrogation. 

Obs. 3.— That , as a relative, is not identical in meaning, when 
properly used, with who and which , but has a special limiting or 
demonstrative import. The house which Jack built , chiefly asserts 
that Jack was the builder of the house. The house that Jack built , 
designates a particular house by mentioning the builder. 

This distinction is elaborately explained in Bain’s English Gram¬ 
mar, pp. 23^4. 


What is the Antecedent ? 116. What are the simple Relative Pronouns ? What 
are the compound relative pronouns? 111. How are the relatives who , which , and 
that used ? 



66 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


118. As is rarely used now as a relative, but must 
still be recognized as belonging to that class of words: 
thus, I procured such plants as I wanted . 

This is equivalent in construction, as well as in form, to 
I procured those plants which I wanted . 

119. Interrogative Pronouns are those that are 
employed in asking questions; as, Who robbed the or¬ 
chard last night ? 

Obs.—A question may be grammatically presented in two forms. 
It may be asked directly; as, Who robbed the orchard? or it may 
be asked indirectly, without making any specific inquiry; as, I wish 
I knew who robbed the orchard last night. 

The former mode is called a direct interrogation, and requires the 
mark of interrogation after it. The latter is called an indirect inter¬ 
rogation, and does not take the mark of interrogation after it. 

120. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, what , 
and ivhether. 

121. Who refers to persons; which to persons, ani¬ 
mals, and things; so does whether . What refers to 
things only. 

Who brought the news ? 

Which of the horses do you prefer f 

Whether of these will you choose ? 

What has he done ? 

Obs. 1.—The employment of whether as an interrogative has been 
almost entirely discontinued, but it is of frequent occurrence in the 
older English writers. 

Obs. 2 .— Whether properly refers to a choice between two things, 
which of two? 

122. There are several compound interrogatives; 
such as, who else, what else, ivhich other, what other . 


118. Is the use of as as a relative frequent ? 119. What are Interrogative Pro¬ 
nouns ? 120. What are the interrogative pronouns in English ? 121. To what do 
the interrogative pronouns severally refer ? 122. What are the compound iuter- 
rogatives ? 



PRONOUNS. 


67 


123. Demonstrative Pronouns indicate or point 
out persons and things, so as to distinguish them from 
others; as, This is my gun; that is yours. 

124. The only Demonstrative Pronouns in English 
are this and that , with their plurals these and those. 

Obs. — That belongs to three different parts of speech, according 
to its use. It is used as a Relative, as a Demonstrative, and as a 
Conjunction. 

It is a Relative when it is not immediately joined to a noun, hut 
refers to an antecedent; as, The dreams that charmed my youth 
visit not my aye. 

It is a Demonstrative when it requires a noun, expressed or under¬ 
stood ; as This (man) is a good man; that (man) is a bad one. 

It is a Conjunction when it introduces a dependent clause; as 
'‘'‘Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in tfu. 
land." 

125. This and these indicate things nearest to the 
speaker; that and those signify the things which are more 
remote from him. 

This chair is broken ; that has been mended. 

Obs. 1 .— This and that, these and those are called Correlatives, be¬ 
cause they reciprocally refer to each other; and the use of the one 
supposes the express or implied use of the other. Wealth and 
poverty are alike temptations; that generates pride, this discontent. 

Obs. 2.— Such, certain, and self-same are sometimes included 
among the Demonstrative Pronouns. 

Obs. 3 .— Yon and yonder, former and latter , are used, like ^wand 
that, with a demonstrative signification. Yon and yonder are ranked 
by Ben Jonson, and many other grammarians, with the Demonstra¬ 
tive Pronouns. They are, however, adjectives. Yonder is the regu¬ 
lar Comparative of yon or yond, and means that which has gone fur¬ 
ther ( y-gone, y-goned, yond, yonder). 

Former and latter are adjectives in the comparative degree. 

126. Distributive Pronouns indicate that the in¬ 
dividuals composing an aggregate or whole are to be 
regarded separately; as, Each of the family has been 
sick. 

127. The distributive pronouns are, each, every, either, 
neither. 


123. What do Demonstrative Pronouns indicate ? 124. What are the demonstra¬ 
tive pronouns in English? 125. How are this and these, that and those employed? 
126. What do Distributive Pronouns indicate? 127. Mention the distributive 
pronouns. 



68 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


Obs. —Each is applied to any number of persons or things, and 
considers them only separately and singly ; as, Each of the apples 

yj(lS VOttCTl. 

Every is applied to any considerable number of persons or things, 
and considers them both singly and collectively ; as, Every apple was 
rotten. 

Either is properly applied to only two persons or things, and re¬ 
gards them singly, but with an indication of indifference as to which. 
<Jf the two may be selected ; as. Take either road you please. 

Neither is a contraction for not-either ( ne-either ), and follows 
strictly the usage of either. There seems to have been such a form 
as no-other , whence the old English nother and the provincial mouther 
have been derived. 

128. Indefinite Pronouns denote persons and things, 
without any indication of particular individuals; as, 
Some turned back; others sivam the river. 

Indefinite pronouns refer definitely to things undefined. 

129. The indefinite pronouns are, all , any, no, none, 
many, some, such, one , other, and, perhaps, a few more, 
with many compound forms. 

Obs. 1.—The compound indefinite pronouns are numerous. They 
are, another , some other , all other , such other , one other , none other , some 
one , some other , some such, any such , etc. It is unnecessary to enu¬ 
merate them, as they may always be treated, and are better parsed 
separately. 

Obs. 2.— Each other and one another maybe termed reciprocal pro¬ 
nouns. They occur only after transitive verbs; and throw back the 
action of the verb from the one to the other of the persons or things 
spoken of. The children tenderly loved each other. This means that 
each child loved the other children. They cheated one another — that 
is, one cheated the other. 

Obs. 3.— No and none differ in this: No is joined with nouns; 
none is not, though it is joined to other pronouns ; as, none others , 
none such. 

No is used to express either the singular or the plural. None is 
rarely used except in the plural. But it is unusual rather than in¬ 
correct to say, None has ever excelled him , since none is a contraction 
for no one. 

One. other , such , form negations by taking no before them; another , 
any , all, take not. But one also takes not in answers ; as, no one , 
no other, no such; not another , not any , not all. Which of you did 
right ? Not one. 

Obs. 4.— No. all , and every have been frequently regarded as arti¬ 
cles ; and they have many points of agreement with the articles. 


Many recent grammarians of ability have endeavored to introduce 
what they conceive to be a more philosophical distribution of the 
parts of speech, by refusing to admit the articles and adjective 


128. What do Indefinite Pronouns denote ? 129. What are the indefinite 

pronouns ? 




ADJECTIVES. 


69 


pronouns as classes distinct from the adjectives. It has seemed 
expedient in a text-book for young scholars to adhere to the older 
and more familiar arrangement, but the new scheme is here 
appended. 

Adjectives are divided into two leading classes ; Descriptive Ad¬ 
jectives, and Determinative, Definitive, or Limiting Adjectives. 

Descriptive Adjectives denote qualities or properties in¬ 
herent in the things signified by the nouns which they quality. 
Hence, they are called also Qualifying Adjectives. 

Determinative, Definitive, or limiting Adjectives 

denote the extent, mode, or other limitations of the nouns affected 
by them. 

The Determinative Adjectives are distributed into several 
subdivisions. 

1. The articles, a, an, the; to which no, all, and every are fre¬ 
quently added. 

2. The numeral adjectives of all kinds. 

3. The demonstrative pronouns. 

4. The distributive pronouns. 

5. The indefinite pronouns. 

fi. The possessive pronouns, when not regarded as possessive cases 
of the personal pronouns. 

All the pronominal adjectives, with the exception of the relatives 
and interrogatives, together with the articles, are thus embraced in 
one class with the adjective, and form with the numeral adjectives a 
secondary class of adjectives. The pronouns are thus restricted to 
the personal, relative, and interrogative pronouns ; and the inter¬ 
rogatives are usually identified with the relatives. 

This distribution has some advantages, but they are philosophical 
rather than grammatical, and seem to be more than counterbalanced 
by the practical disadvantages which result from such an alteration. 
Grammar should be learnt technically, before the attempt is made to 
teach it philosophically. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Pronouns in thefollowing sentences, stale Iheir kinds, and 
tell Ihe nouns for which they stand, or to which they refer . 

The bark which is stripped from the oak, is used in 
tanning leather. There are men in some countries who ea 
acorns. In this country men live on other things, and the 
only tame animals that feed upon such food as mast are pigs 
and poultry. You are hungry, and I am thirsty. The soldiers 
told their officers that they had done what they were ordered 
to do. Let us overtake that man that is walking before us, 
that we may find out the road. Which is right ? What is the 
true answer ? Some persons may agree with you; others 
will not: each man has his own opinion : all do not think 
alike. Do not tease one another. Who gave you that book ? 
I say that that that that that boy says is wrong, ancl that 
that that that that teacher said was right. That that I say 
is this, that that that that gentleman now asserts is not that 
that he undertook to prove. 


70 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Correct the errors in the following sentences . 

I saw the lion who killed the man which fed him. The 
tree whom you planted has been blown down. The rain 
what fell has raised the waters, who are too deep now to be 
forded by those which travel, especially by such that are 
weak and timorous. Some boys ran a race, and all beat 
each other. 


THE VERB, AND ITS KINDS. 

130. A Verb is a word which denotes being, a state 
of being, or action ; as, I am , I sleep, I strike , I am 
struck . 


I am signifies simply existence, real or imaginary, in fact 
or in thought. It is the only verb in the language which 
directly signifies this and no more. It is hence called the 
Substantive Verb—or verb of existence (subsistence). 

I exist means simply existence, but it means real existence, 
in fact or in thought. There exists in Africa a strange animal, 
called the gorilla. There exists an opposite theory. 

I sleep signifies existence under a special condition, the 
condition of sleeping. 

I strike denotes an act or action—the action of striking— 
and implies existence in order that action may be possible. 
It denotes the action, act, or activity of striking. 

I am struck denotes an action which takes effect upon me, 
and which is performed by another. 

Obs. —Lindley Murray’s definition of a verb, as “a word which 
signifies to be, to do, and to suffer,” was long received as sufficient 
by succeeding grammarians. But its manifest inaccuracy and in¬ 
adequacy led to its rejection, and to numerous attempts at a more 
satisfactory definition. Some of these accord, more or less com 
pletely, with that which has been given in the text. But the defini 
tion which has latterly been received with most favor, and which ia 
drawn from James Harris of Salisbury, is, that “ a verb is a word 
used to affirm something of a subject.” 

This definition appears to be both defective and erroneous, and ia 
open to many graver objections than those specified by Horn© 
Tooke. 


ISO. What is a Verb ? Illustrate the different meanings of the verb. 





THE VERB, AND ITS KINDS, 


71 


131. In every sentence tlie verb is the word which 
asserts, or forms the predication. The stars — shine ; tlie 
stars—are shining. 

No assertion can be made, nor can any sentence be com¬ 
plete without a verb. 

Fruit wholesome conveys no meaning. Fruit is the name 
of a thing, wholesome is the name of a quality. But there 
is no assertion, no statement, no judgment, no predication, 
no sentence, till a verb is introduced. Fruit—is wholesome , 
asserts or predicates wholesomeness of fruit. 

Obs.—T he principal verb in a sentence is called the Finite Verb. 

132. Yerbs may be divided into two kinds—Transitive 
and Intransitive. 

Obs. 1.—This division of verbs is neither philosophical nor satis¬ 
factory, but it is convenient, as it simplifies greatly the study of the 
verb. It has been adopted by Arnold, Crane, Bullions, Fowler, 
Butler, Bailey, Barton, Clark, Connon, McLeod, Greene, Wells, Kerl, 
Quackenbos, Towers, Sullivan, Morell, McCulloch, Thring, Bain, etc. 

Obs. 2.—The older division of verbs was into Active, Passive, and 
Neuter. An active verb signifies an act or action performed; as, I 
strike. A passive verb expresses an act or action received; as, lam 
struck . A neuter verb expresses no action at all; as, I sleep. 

There are grave objections to the admission of passive verbs as a 
distinct class: there are graver to its rejection. As there are no 
simple forms in English which have a passive sense with an active 
form, the passive verb corresponds with the passive voice, and hence 
has arisen the main inducement to repudiate this class of verbs. 

Many of the best, and many of the latest grammarians still retain 
the older division. Amongst the number are Brown, Lennie, Smart, 
Coveil, Hunter, Hyde, Clark, Allen, and Cornwell. 

Obs. 3. —Every step in the discussion of the verb is open to cavil, 
and lias furnished occasion to endless controversies. 

133. Transitive Verbs require the addition of 
an object to complete the sense ; as, They killed—a 
hear. 

Transitive verbs form imperfect predicates by themselves; 
they require the statement of the object of the action, to 

make a full assertion. They killed -. What? - the 

hear. 

134. Intransitive Verbs denote an action or con- 


131 What is the office of the verb in every sentence ? 132. Into what two kinds 
may verbs be divided? 133. What do Transitive Yerbs require? What kind of 
predicates do transitive verbs form ? 134. What do Intransitive Yerbs denote ? 







72 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


dition which is confined to the subject of the propo¬ 
sition ; as, I walk, I play, 1 sleep, I die. 

Intransitive verbs form perfect predicates by themselves. 
They do not require the addition of any object to complete 
the predication. 

135. Yerbs are also divided into Principal Verbs, and 
Auxiliary, or Helping Yerbs. 

This division relates to their employment in the formation 
of the compound parts of the verb. 

136. The Principal Verbs include the greater num¬ 
ber of verbs; and nearly all verbs are, under certain 
circumstances, used as principal verbs. 

The only verbs never employed as principal verbs are, 
ought, must, may, can. 

137. The Auxiliary Verbs are those by the aid of 
which the compound parts of the verb are formed; as, 

I may have been led into error. 

The auxiliary verbs are, be, have, do, shall, will, may, can, 
let, must, ought. 

Obs.— Ought is frequently excluded from the list of auxiliary yerbs; 

and dare—durst, is frequently added to them 


Exercises. 

Point out the Verbs, and also the Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns 
in the following sentences. Tell the kinds of the Verbs, and ex¬ 
plain why they are of those kinds. 

The Athenians had lost all concern for their honor. Mount 
Hermon is always capped with snow. The young prince 


What kind of medicates do intransitive verbs form ? 135. How are verbs other¬ 
wise divided ? What does this division relate to ? 136. What do the Principal 
Verbs include ? What are the only verbs never employed as principal verbs ? 137 
What are the Auxiliary Verbs ? Name the auxiliary verbs. 



THE ADVERB. 


73 

devoted a considerable portion of his time to study. He 
that swells in prosperity, will shrink in adversity. He that 
walketh with wise men shall be wise. Patience and perse¬ 
verance will surmount all difficulties. Sadness contracts the 
mind; mirth dilates it. Friendship can scarcely exist where 
virtue is not the foundation. She dances well. He lives 
obscurely. He laughed, and she smiled. You may do better 
another time. Vice is its own punishment; and virtue is 
its own reward. Mmy lose their labor because they do not 
prosecute the work which they have begun. The lake re¬ 
flects the sky. I can tell you nothing about it. The rocks 
present on eveiy side a steep acclivity. 


THE ADVERB. 

138. An Adverb is a word used to qualify the mean¬ 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, He 
reads well; they are very poor ; you may he justly con¬ 
gratulated ; remarlcably pleasant proposals were made to 
us ; the man acted very shabbily . 

Obs.— An adverb expresses in a single word what might be less 
briefly expressed by a preposition with its clause; as, He reads 
well—he reads with great elegance and 'propriety. They are very poor 
—they are poor in an extreme degree. 

139. Adverbs are such words as oft, often, very, fre¬ 
quently, truly, only, once, how, however, where, whence, 
whither, etc. 

* 140. Adverbs may be distributed into classes, ac¬ 
cording to the nature of the qualification expressed by 
them. 

The principal classes of adverbs (which admit of further 
subdivision) are— 


138. What xs an Adverb? 139. Give examples of adverbs. *140. Into what 
classes may adverbs be distributed ? Give instances of adverbs of each class. 




74 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


I. Adverbs of time: 

Now, then, when, once, at once, soon, often, ere, while, ere- 
while, whilst, ago, early, late, lately, next, before, after, a/fer- 
wards, presently, immediately, yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, 
sometimes, never, henceforward, hereafter, etc. 

II. Adverbs of place: 

Here, there, where, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, 
whence, hitherward, thitherward, above, below, yonder, forth, 
forwards, backwards, sideways, right, left, far, near, off, on, 
up, down, upward, downward, to and fro, etc. 

III. Adverbs of number: 

Once, twice, thrice, first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly,frequently, 
etc. 


IY. Adverbs of manner: 

Well, ill, slowly, quickly, brightly, brilliantly, sadly, badly, 
stupidly, sweetly, how, etc. 

V. Adverbs of logical relation : 

Why, wherefore (forthy, obsolete), therefore, etc. 

VI. Adverbs of degree and comparison: 

Enough, excellently, extremely, extravagantly, almost, quite, 
scarcely, very, more, most, so, as, etc. 

VII. Adverbs of affirmation or negation: 

Yes, yea, aye, not, no, not so, not-at-all, in no wise, forsooth, 
verily, certainly, etc. 

VIII. Adverbs of doubt: 

Peradventure, perchance, perhaps, possibly. 

IX. Adverbs of direction—many of them also adverbs of 
place: 

Upward, downward, inward, outward, windward, leeward, 
seaward, landward, etc. 

X. Adverbs of quantity: 

All, altogether, entirely, wholly, partly, how much ? so much, 

etc. 


Obs.— No is frequently used with adjectives and no* with nouns, in 
order to express an opposite signification with more intensity; as. 
No small fool; no great result; not a Solomon. 3 


PREPOSITIONS. 


75 


Exercises. 

Point out the Adverbs, and the other parts of speech with which you 
are now acquainted ’ in the following phrases and sentences. 

Very fragrant. Wherever I go. Excellently well. He 
seldom leaves home. They live veiy frugally. The work 
is already done. Pre-eminently beautiful. Children often 
pronounce words improperly. One may sew while the 
other reads. Prepare your lessons carefully. How patheti¬ 
cally were the deaths of Saul and Jonathan lamented by 
David! The house was left entirely open, and the keys 
could be found nowhere. My cousin visited me here lately. 
Take exercise daily. Where I am, thither ye cannot come. 
The ship was driven ashore yesterday. The thrush sings 
sweetly. However strange it may appear, it is altogether 
certain: good may perhaps result The walls of the house 
fell inward. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


141. A Preposition is a word used to show the re¬ 
lation of nouns and pronouns to other words in the 
sentence ; as, Death entered into the ivorld by sin. 

The preposition into shows what was entered by death; 
the preposition by shows the agency by which death was 
enabled to enter into the world. 

Obs. 1.—“The original nse of nearly all prepositions appears to 
have been to give local direction to the action of verbs.”—Mulligan, 
p. 244. 

The use of the preposition is to enlarge an attribute or a predicate, 
but chiefly the latter, by directing its meaning to some notion which 
completes or limits it. Hence, prepositions are often used adver¬ 
bially; and hence prepositional clauses have always the effect of 
adverbs in a sentence. 

142. Prepositions do not always require a noun or 


141. What is a Preposition ? 142. Do prepositions always require nouns or pro* 
noons after them ? 



76 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


pronoun after them; as, He went up —that is, he as¬ 
cended. 

Obs. 1.—Prepositions may be joined with verbs either in compo¬ 
sition, or loosely, without entering into composition; as, To under¬ 
take a thing , and to take up a thing ; to overlook a parcel ; to look over 
a book; to look over a bush. 

The signification of the verb generally varies with the use of the 
same preposition, according as it is joined to the verb or disconnect¬ 
ed from it. Thus, To overlook a parcel , is to neglect it, to fail to 
perceive it; to look over a book , is to run the eye rapidly and cursorily 
over its pages; to look over a bush , is to look above and beyond a 
bush. 

The meaning of the preposition is always modified by the meaning 
of both the terms which it connects. 

Obs. 2.—In connection with a verb, the preposition often has no 
noun or pronoun after it, but expresses merely an altered relation 
of the meaning conveyed by the verb. In, He looked down , the pre- 

{ •osition only expresses a changed direction of the act of looking, 
n these forms, the preposition is often regarded as an adverb, and it 
certainly exhibits an adverbial construction. But it appears incon¬ 
sistent to consider over a preposition in overlook , and not a preposi¬ 
tion in look over. It is bett er to regard over in the latter case also as 
a preposition, severed by Tmesis from the verb to which it belongs. 
(See Mulligan, p. 2U2, 235-6.) 

The English language abounds in words of this character; and the 
constructions resulting from them constitute one of the most char¬ 
acteristic peculiarities of the tongue—a peculiarity with difficulty 
apprehended by foreigners, and rarely appreciated even by those to 
whom English is the mother tongue. 

143. Prepositions are divided into separable and in¬ 
separable. 

The separable prepositions may enter into composition 
•with other words, or may be placed before nouns and 
pronouns, or may stand without nouns or pronouns after 
them ; as, a downfall; a fall down the cliff; to fall down. 

The inseparable prepositions are employed only in com¬ 
position. They are such as a, be, fore, and many elements 
of compound words derived from foreign tongues; as, a-foot, 
a-board, be-dew, be-come, fore-go, fore-done, sub-tract, subter¬ 
fuge, im-prove, ac-cept. 

* 144. The principal prepositions in English may be 
arranged in the following classes: 

I. The simple prepositions: at, after, but, by, down, far 
from, in, of, off, on, over, round, since, till, through, under, up, 
with , out, than. 


143. IIow are prepositions divided ? How are separable, and how are insepara¬ 
ble prepositions used ? *144. Mention some of the principal English prepositions 
under their respective classes. 




PREPOSITIONS. 


77 


II. Prepositions formed witli the prefix a: aboard, above K 
about, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, i 
around, athwart. 

Amidst and amongst are superlative forms of amitf and among. 

III. Prepositions formed with the prefix be: before, behind, 
fofow, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. 

IV. Prepositions formed by compounding a preposition 
with another preposition, or with some other word : into, 
out of, throughout, towards, upon, until, unto, underneath, 
within, without, inside, outside. 

V. Active participles used as prepositions: concerning, 
during, excepting, notwithstanding, regarding, respecting, 
pending, touching. 

VI. Some imperatives employed prepositionally: saw, 
except. But may be included in this class. 

VII. Several phrases are used as prepositions : despite of, 
according to, in accordance with, in consequence of, pertaining 
to, by reason of, with respect to, with relation to, out of regard 
for. 


Nigh, next , and worth are sometimes regarded as prepositions. 

145. Prepositions may be joined together, so as to 
modify the relation signified by the principal prepo¬ 
sition in such combination: The hook was incorrectly 
j printed from about the twentieth to about the sixtieth page. 

Instances of such connected prepositions are: from off ‘ 
from about, from without, from within; at about, of about, 
round about, to about; till before, till after ; oxer beyond, up to. 

Obs. 1.—Many grammarians have condemned the use of preposi¬ 
tions with pronominal adverbs dependent upon them in place of sub¬ 
stantives. Thus they proscribe such expressions as, Where are you 
going to ? where have you come from ? From thence he departed on 
the third day. 

Such phrases are in entire consonance with the usages of the 
Greek and of other languages ; they are fully sanctioned by the best 
English authorities; and their exclusion deprives the English lan¬ 
guage of much of its vigor and idiomatic complexion. They are 
often more correct and elegant, because more idiomatic, than the 
substitutes proposed for them— Whither, or to what place are you 
going ? Whence , or from what place have you come? Thence he de¬ 
parted on the third day. 


145. May prepositions be joined together? 




ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


78 


The accepted usages of languge cannot be set aside by any formal 
prescriptions of grammar. In the present instance, it has been over¬ 
looked that here, there , where , hither , thither , whither , hence , Mcrace, 
whence , are real cases of pronouns, transmitted from the elder form 
of the language; and that they were habitually used after prepositions. 

Obs. 2 i—It is a distinctively English idiom to close a sentence 
with a preposition: “ Pedantry is properly the overrating of any kind 
of knowledge that we pretend to.”—Swift. 

146. Much of the elegance of writing and speaking 
depends upon the habitual employment of the appro¬ 
priate prepositions after particular words. 

We arrive at a place; not, to a place: we ask questions of 
a person; not at one: but we ask a favor of another. 

Obs.—T he general rule is, that compound words, borrowed from 
foreign languages, require a preposition corresponding with that 
which enters into their composition; as, to enter into a house ; to 
inter in a cemetery. 

But to this rule there are numerous exceptions; and it is the ex 
ceptions which require observance. The list is too long to be 
inserted here. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Prepositions and prepositional phrases (§ 144, vii .) 
in the following sentences . Tell also the kinds of the other words. 

They ran towards the river. The monkey jumped upon 
the wall. The sailors climbed up to the top of the mast. 
The pitman fell to the bottom of the pit. Many men have 
died in consequence of such accidents. I have known him 
for a long time. The village is situated between two high 
ridges. You must stay at home to-day instead of going to 
the picnic, on account of your misconduct. The cattle swam 
across the river. I borrowed the Book of Sports from a 
friend. Brooklyn is opposite to New York. All aboard the 
vessel were lost. An eclipse takes place when the moon 
passes between the sun and the earth, thus coming before 
the sun, or when the moon passes behind the earth. It has 
been very cold throughout this whole month ot March. 

(For Models and Exercises in parsing Prepositions, see p. 220.) 


146. How is the elegance of language affected by the choice of prepositions ? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 


79 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

147. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, 
phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

It makes a single phrase or sentence out of what would 
otherwise require separate sentences for its expression. 

James and George will go, if I remain. But, if I go, they 
will remain. 

Here, the conjunction and connects the proper names James and 
George. The conjunction if connects the dependent clauses. Ire- 
main, and I go, with the principal clauses James and George will go, 
and they will remain. The conjunction hut connects the two sen¬ 
tences together. Were it not for the employment of these conjunc¬ 
tions, the statements conveyed as a combined declaration by these 
two propositions, or sentences, would be awkwardly, indistinctly, 
and inadequately expressed by several separate sentences. James 
will go. George ivill go. I will remain. They will go in that event. 
They will not go otherwise. I will go. They will remain in that event. 
Their going depends upon my remaining. My going depends upon 
their remaining. My remaining depends upon their going. Their 
remaining depends upon my going. 

Obs.—O ther parts of speech, as the verb, the relative, the aavero, 
and the preposition, or adverbial or prepositional phrases, frequently 
have the same effect as a conjunction. You will go: for that reason 
I will remain. Stay where you are. 

148. A conjunction connects together two or more 
words, or phrases, or clauses, or sentences, but it does 
not necessarily connect together their significations. 

When we say, A man, and a woman, and a boy; a man, 
or a woman, or a boy; neither a man, nor a woman; we do 
not mean that the man, the woman, and the boy, are either 
identical, or connected together. 

149. The principal conjunctions in English are the 
following: 

And, also, as, because, besides, both, but, else, except, for, 
further, hence, however, if, likewise, neither—nor, neverthe¬ 
less, notwithstanding, nor, now, either—or, or, save, since, 
so, than, that, then, therefore, though, although, unless, lest, 
when, whereas, wherefore, while yet. 


147. What is a Conjunction ? 148. What does a conjunction connect ? and what 
does it not always connect ? 149. Mention the principal English conjunctions. 



80 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Obs— Several of these words are primarily adverbs, but, being 
frequently employed as connectives, tney have come to be regarded 
as conjunctions. Many adverbs, prepositions, and other words are 
used with the force of conjunctions, and must be treated as such 
when so employed. 

150. Besides the simple conjunctions, there are many 
compound conjunctions, or conjunctive phrases; as, in 
addition to this, inasmuch as, for all that, as well as, not¬ 
withstanding that, as if, as though, except that, etc. 

151. Conjunctions are usually divided into two princi¬ 
pal classes, Copulative and Disjunctive. 

Joseph and John are at work in the field: Joseph is indus¬ 
trious, hut John is not. 

In the first member of this sentence and is a Copulative Conjunc¬ 
tion. In the second member, but is a Disjunctive Conjunction. 

152. Copulative Conjunctions connect together 
words, parts of sentences, and sentences, and unite 
their meanings into a compound declaration. 

They are, and, as, also, because, for, if, since, that, then, etc. 

153. Disjunctive Conjunctions connect words, parts 
of sentences, and sentences, so as to form a single 
complex declaration from opposing or contrasted 
thoughts. 

They are, although, hut, either — or, however, lest, neither— 
nor, notwithstanding, or, than, though, unless, whether, yet, etc. 

154. Some conjunctions are habitually, though not 
exclusively, used in pairs. These are called Correla¬ 
tive Conjunctions. They are, 

Though — yet, nevertheless. Though He slay me, yet will I 
trust on Him. 


150. Are there any other conjunctions besides the simple conjunctions ? Give 
examples. 151. How are conjunctions usually divided ? 152. What is the nature 
of Copulative Conjunctions ? Name some copulative conjunctions. 153. What is 
the nature of Disjunctive Conjunctions ? Mention some disjunctive conjunctions. 
154. What are Correlative Conjunctions? Give examples. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 


81 


Wither — or. He will either write or send. 

Whether — or. It matters not whether you go or stay. 
Neither—nor. Neither Blake nor Nelson lived to enjoy 
Lis honors. 

As — as. The Irish are as rich in genius as any other 
people. 

As — so. As you treat him, so will he treat you. 

So — as. The English have not dwelt in England so long 
as the Welsh. 

So — that. He was so lazy that he would not stir. 

155. Than is used as a conjunction after adjectives 
and adverbs in the comparative degree. He arrived 
earlier than I —that is, than I arrived . 

Obs.— Than is also used as a preposition after comparatives; as, 
Aristotle , than whom a greater 'philosopher never lived. We cannot 
say, a greater philosopher than who never lived. 

But, if it be correct to use than as a preposition in such construe 
tions, it should be correct to say, He arrived earlier than me. But 
this locution is generally condemned. 

It is better, therefore, to employ than solely as a conjunction, and 
never as a preposition; hut we must recognize its former use as a 
preposition, and its occasional use as such still. 

*156. Conjunctions are otherwise divided into the two 
classes of Co-ordinative and Subordinative Conjunctions. 

Co-ordinative Conjunctions unite together words 
and statements independent of each other, and form com¬ 
pound sentences. 

God sustains and governs the world ; but He leaves man free 
and responsible. 

The conjunction and here unites words: the conjunction but 
unites statements. 

Subordinative Conjunctions unite sentences to¬ 
gether in such a manner that one is employed to modify the 
other. 

Ye shall perish, unless ye repent. 

The conjunction unless modifies or limits the declaration “ ye shall 
perish,” by introducing a sentence “ye repent,” which states the 
condition which would prevent perishing. 


155 When is than employed as a conjunction? *156. How are conjunctions 
otherwise divided ? What are Co-ordinative, and what are Subordinative Con¬ 
junctions ? 

4* 




82 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Obs .—Co-ordinative and subordinative conjunctions are subdivided 
into other classes. There are wide differences in different authors, 
in regard to the scheme of such divisions which are better calcu- 
lated“to perplex the learner than to afford him any available knowl¬ 
edge. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Conjunctions and the other parts of speech in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences; and explain the use of the different kinds of 
Conjunctions. 

Neither you nor your brother can go. Boys delight in 
fishing and hunting. The civil and religious customs of a 
people leave traces in its language. Send Thomas, or Peter 
or Robert. Pompey was not so great a man as Caesar. I 
shall leave to-morrow, whether you go with me, or leave me 
to go alone. Although He slay me, yet will I trust in Him. 
Love your parents, for that is the commandment. If you 
are diligent, you may learn much; but unless you study, you 
cannot leam. Wisdom is more precious than fine gold. 
Love thy neighbor as thyself. He was ashamed because he 
had done wrong. If I am mistaken, correct me, and I will 
thank you. Others can dp it as well as I can. As if an 
angel spoke, I feel the solemn sound. 

(For Models and Exercises in parsing Conjunctions, see p. 220.) 


INTERJECTIONS. * 

157. An Interjection is a word which expresses 
some sudden emotion of the speaker; as, Oh ! what a 
fall was there , my countrymen ! 

158. Interjections are employed wherever the lan¬ 
guage of feeling is substituted for the language of 
thought; and may be formed by single words, by 
phrases, or by whole sentences; as, Ah! Laclc-a-day ! 
Woe is me ! 


157. What is an Interjection? 158. When are interjections employed? and of 
what may they consist ? 



INFLECTION OF WORDS. 


83 


Obs. 1.—An interjection, or an interjectional clause, may be thrown 
in at almost any part of a sentence without disturbing its gram¬ 
matical structure. It is from this circumstance that the interjection 
has derived its name (something thrown between). 

Obs. 2.—Almost all imperatives, numerous other words, and many 
phrases, may be used as interjections under appropriate circum¬ 
stances. 

159. The principal interjections in English are : 

Ah! Aha! Alas! Alack! Away! Begone! Bravo! Eh! 

Fie! Ha! Halloo! Hollo! Hurrah! Hush! Lo! O! Oh! 

Hark! He! Heigh! Pooh! Pish! Psha! Tush! Woe! 

Obs.—T o this list may be added those primitive types of speech— 
hardly to be called words—which are still retained in English: Hm! 
hem! ahem! um! urn-hum! Urnph! Humph! Ugh! with various 
intonations. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Interjections, and Interjectional Phrases, and the 
parts of speech to which the other words belong, in the following 
sentences. 

Alas! for the vanity of human pleasures. Oh! stay, and 
heed me. Hark! how the thunder rolls! Lo! he comes. 
Ah! how unjust! Beautiful! how beautiful is all this visible 
earth! In vain, alas! in vain, ye gallant few. Strange! 
that we should have been so deceived. Behold! the night 
cometh in which no man can work. 

(For Models and Exercises in parsing Interjections, see p. 1^.) 


Part II. 


ACCIDENCE, OR THE INFLECTION OF WORDS. 


160. The only words which receive inflection in Eng¬ 
lish are Nonns and Pronouns, Adjectives and a few 
Adverbs, and Yerbs. 

161. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called 
Declension. 


159. What are the principal interjections in English ? 160. What are the only 
words which receive inflection in English ? 161. What is the inflection of nouns 
and pronouns called ? 




84 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Tlie inflection of adjectives and adverbs is called 
Comparison. 

The inflection of verbs is called Conjugation. 

162. The inflection of nouns and pronouns indicates 
their Number, Gender, and Case. 

The inflection of adjectives and adverbs indicates 
their Degree. 

The inflection of verbs indicates their Person, Num¬ 
ber, Voice, Tense, and Mood. 

Obs. —These terms will all be explained in the consideration of the 
special inflections of these parts of speech. 

163. The classes of words, which are entirely without 
inflection in English, are the Articles, Prepositions, 
Conjunctions, and Interjections. 


THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

164. Nouns are inflected or declined in order to 

signify Number, Gender, and Case ; as, master , masters ; 
master , mistress ; the master , the master's directions. 

Obs. 1. —Declension is a much more comprehensive term in Eng 
lish than inflection, because it includes variations of use which are 
not shown by any change of form in the present language. 

Thus, the word horse is employed in different relations in the 
sentence, The horse kicked him, and He kicked the horse. But there 
is no diversity of form to show this painful diversity of relation. 

Obs. 2. —Such identity of form, notwithstanding the difference of 
relation signified, is due mainly to the loss of the characteristic in¬ 
flections, and occasions what has been termed a virtual inflection. 
Virtual inflections occur, more or less abundantly, in ali languages; 
hut they are peculiarly numerous in English. 

165. Number distinguishes words according as they 
denote one thing, or more than one; as, an orange , 
oranges. 


"What is the inflection of adjectives and adverbs called? What is the inflection 
of verbs called ? 1(52. What does the inflection of nouns and pronou ns indicate ? 
Whal does the inflection of adjectives and adverbs exhibit ? What is the inflec¬ 
tion of verbs used to signify ? 1(53. What classes of words are entirely without 
inflection in English ? 1(54. For what are nouns inflected or declined ? Kin. What 
does Number distinguish? 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 85 

166. There are two numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. 

A noun which signifies one thing is in the singular num¬ 
ber; as, book, saw, ship. 

A noun which signifies more things than one is in the 
plural number; as, books, saws, ships. 

167. Gender distinguishes words with relation to the 
sex of the things denoted by them; as, man, woman, 
hammer. 

168. There are three genders—the Masculine, the 
Feminine, and the Neuter. 

Man is masculine; woman is feminine; and hammer is 
neuter. 

. 169. In English, nouns signifying males are mascu¬ 
line ; nouns signifying females are feminine; and nouns 
signifying things without sex, or without distinction of 
sex, are neuter. 

Thus, Louis, prince, lion, are masculine; Louisa, princess, 
lioness, are feminine; and plough, sea, door, infant, are neuter. 

Obs. —Some nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according 
to the sex of the things signified by them at the time; as, parent, 
child, friend. 

Such words are sometimes said to be of the Common or Epicene 
Gender; but this term is objectionable and unnecessary. 

170. Case is the distinction in the form or in 
the use of nouns, which indicates their relation to 
other words in the sentence; as, a lady's veil —a veil 
belonging to a lady ; men's hoots —boots intended for 
men. 

Obs.— In English, virtual inflections take the place, for the most 
part, of the actual inflections employed in earlier languages, and in 
the early forms of the English language. 


166. How many numbers are there ? What are they ? When is a noun in the 
singular number ? When is a noun in the plural number? 167. What does Gen¬ 
der distino-uish ? 168. How many genders are there ? What are they ? 169. What 
nouns are nasculine, what feminine, and what neuter in English? 170. Waat 
is Case ? 


I 



86 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


171. There are only three cases generally recognized 
in English—the Nominative, the Possessive, and the 
Objective; as, booh, book's, booh. 

Obs. —It is said that only three cases are recognized in English, 
because it will be shown hereafter that other cases still survive. 

172. The Nominative Case is the simple form of 
the noun, and names the subject of the sentence; as, 
man, a man, the man, the men ; the men were idle. 

173. The Possessive Case is formed by the addition 
of s with an apostrophe (’s), or of the apostrophe alone 
(’), to the nominative case of the noun. It denotes 
possession, property, etc.; as, man's duty, a man's hat, 
the man's money, the men's icorh, merchants' goods, for 
goodness' sake. 

174. The Objective Case of nouns is identical in 
form with the nominative. It points out the object to 
which the action, predicate, or attribute is directed; 
as, Call Moses ; good for nothing. 

NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

175. The Singular Number of nouns is expressed 
by the simplest form of the word; as, band, box, coach , 
child. 

176. The Plural Number of nouns is formed from 
the singular, usually by adding the termination s or es ; 

as, bands, boxes, coaches, children. 


171. How many cases are generally recognized in English? What are they? 

172. What is the form of the Nominative Case ? What does the nominative denote ? 

173. How is the Possessive Case formed ? What does the possessive denote ? 1V4. 
What form does the Objective Case assume ? What does the objective point out? 
175. How is the Singular Number of nouns expressed ? 176. How is the Plural 
Number formed ? 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 


87 


°®s.—The letter s alone is added when the sound of s combines 
readi y with the final sound of the word; es when it will not do so; 
as Chair, chairs; lad, lads; tale, tales; lass, lasses; jish, fishes. 
There are several exceptions to this principle, 
several special rules are given for the formation of the plural. 


*177. Rule I.—Nouns ending in s, sh, ch soft, tch , 
and x , form the plural by adding es to the singular ; 
as, kiss, kisses ; brush, brushes; church, churches; fox, 
foxes. 

Rule II.—Nouns ending in o preceded by a conso¬ 
nant add es ; as, hero, heroes; cargo, cargoes; negro, 
negroes. 


Except Canto, cantos; octavo, octavos; quarto, quartos; 
portico, porticos; solo, solos; grotto,grottos; tyro, tyros; zero, 
zeros. 


Rule III.—Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel 
add s only; as, bamboo, bamboos; cameo, cameos; folio, 
folios. 

Rule IV.—Nouns ending in ff take s only; as, puff, 
puffs ; muff, muffs ; rebuff, rebuffs. 

Except staff, , whose plural is staves. But its compounds 
are regular; as, flag-staff, flag-staffs: but tipstaff often 
makes its plural tipstaves. 

Rule Y.—Nouns ending in / or fe change / or fe into 
ves in the plural; as, loaf, loaves; calf, calves; life, 
lives ; wife, wives. 

Except dwarf, brief, chief, grief, handkerchief', mischief, gulf 
life, safe, strife, proof, hoof, roof, reproof, fief, reef, relief, waif, 
which take s only. 

Scarf, wharf, dwarf, and hoof have their plural in either s 
or es; but scai'ves, dwarves, and hooves are antiquated forms. 


* 177. How are the plurals of nouns in s , sh, ch soft, and x formed ? How do 
nouns in o preceded by a consonant form the plural ? What are the exceptions to 
this rule ? How do nouns in o preceded by a vowel form the plural ? How is the 

{ dural of nouns ending in ff formed ? What is the exception to this rule? How 
s the plural of nouns ending in / or fe formed ? What are the exceptions ? What 
are ‘he plurals of scarf, wharf, dwarf, hoof ? 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule YI.—Nouns terminating in y preceded by a 
consonant change y into ies ; as, lady, ladies ; city , cities. 

But if y follows a vowel, it is not changed, and s only is 
added; as, chimney,chimneys; attorney, attorneys; joy, joys. 

The termination guy becomes quies in the plural; as, so¬ 
liloquy, soliloquies. Qu has the effect of a consonant, and 
seems to be regarded as such. 

178. Some nouns form the plural by adding en to the 
singular; as, ox, oxen ; child , children ; brother , brethren. 

Obs.—S uch plurals were much more numerous in the earlier Eng¬ 
lish ; as, tree, treen, trees ; shoe, shoon, shoes ; eye, eyen, eyes ; hose, 
hosen; house, housen, etc. 

To this class belong also other words which have undergone a 
further inflection; as, sow, swine; cow, kine. 

179. Several nouns form the plural by changing the 
vowel sounds or vowel letters of the singular; as, man , 
men ; woman, women ; foot, fext. 

189. In some words the plural appears to be entirely 
irregular in formation; the termination being changed 
to the sound, but not to the spelling of s, sometimes 
with, and sometimes without a change of the vowel 
sound of the singular; as, Die, dice ; pea, pease ; mouse , 
mice. 

181. The nouns of English origin, which form the 
plural otherwise than by the addition of s or es to the 
singular, are among the oldest words in the language, 
and retain, completely or partially, their ancient inflec¬ 
tion. They are— 

kine, 
cows, 
dice, 
dies. 




Ox, 

Child, 

Brother, j jjj. 


oxen. 

children. 

brethren, 

brothers. 


Cow, 

Die, 


How is the plural of nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, formed ? How 
is the plural formed when y follows a vowel ? What is the plural of nouns ending 
in quut 178. How do ox, child, brother , form their plurals? 179. How are the 
plurals of man, woman, foot, etc., formed? 180. What other mode of forming the 
plural is found in English? 181. What is the character of the nouns which form 
their plruals irregularly ? 



89 


NUMBER OF NOUNS 


Man, men. 


Pea i pease, 

’ ( peas. 


Woman, women. 


Tooth, teeth. 


Foot, feet. 

Goose, geese. 

Louse, lice. 

Mouse, mice. 


Penny, 1 P enc ?’ 

J ’ ( penme 

Sow, s ^ ine > 

( sows. 


pennies. 

swine, 

sows. 


Obs. 1.— Several of these words have two plural forms; the one in 
accordance with the analogy of the modern language; the other re¬ 
tained from the elder time. In these cases, the two plurals are now 
used with different significations. Brothers is applied to persons of 
the same family; brethren , to members of the same society. Sows 
means more than one sow ; swine, more than one of the hog kind. 
Cows signifies more than one cow ; kine, several cattle. Peas is ordi¬ 
narily used in speaking of the vegetable and its products for the 
table; pease is rarely employed except in composition, as pease-pud¬ 
ding, pease-broth. Dice are little cubes of ivory used in gambling, 
and casting lots ; dies are stamps for coining, and making medals, 
etc. Pence denotes the value of more than one penny; pennies more 
than one of the coins denominated a penny. 

Obs. 2.—The compounds of these words follow them in the forma¬ 
tion of the plural; as, grand-child, grand-children; gentleman, gen¬ 
tlemen ; dog-tooth, dog-teeth ; shrew-mouse, shrew-mice; sixpenny, 
sixpence, sixpennies. 

But sixpence and other similar compounds may he used as singular 
nouns, and receive another plural termination. Thus, it is perfectly 
correct to say Jive half-pences (pronounced hSpences), four three¬ 
pences (pronounced thrippences), and three sixpences. What is 
spoken of in this way is the coin or aggregate of value, designated 
respectively a half-penny, a three-pence, and a sixpence . 

Obs. 3.—The words German, Norman, Turcoman, Mussulman, 
talisman, cayman, letnan, and similar words, take the common form 
of the plural in s because they are not compounds of the English 
word, man. 


* 182. Some compound nouns form the plural by at- 



compose them; as, kniglits-errant, or knight-errants; 
courts-martial , or court-martials. But we must say 
Lord High Chancellors , and not Lords High Chancellor. 


Obs. 1.—In most cases, double titles require each to be put in the 
plural; as, The Lords Bishops, the Lords Commissioners; but Major- 
Generals, and not Majors-Generals. 

Obs. 2.—To this head belongs also the question whether it is more 
correct to say the Miss Browns, or the Misses Brown. Most American 
and some English writers on English grammar direct us to say the 
Misses Brown, the Misses McFlimsey, etc. This accords with French 
usage, hut appears to be a vulgarism in English. Goldsmith says, 
the two Miss Flamboroughs ; and this form is approved by the best 
English grammarians, is sustained by the practice of the best society, 
and is in consonance with Latin custom. 

Obs. 3.—Such compounds as handful, spoonful, cupful, make new 
nouns, and form their plural handfuls, spoonfuls, cupfuls —not 
hands-ful. 


* 182. How do some compound nouns form the plural ? 






90 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


183. Several nouns in English admit no change in 
the plural. Such are : sing., sheep ; pi., sheep. 

These words are sheep, deer, trout, salmon, pike. 

Obs .—Riches and alms are really singular nouns, notwithstanding 
their apparently plural forms. They are contractions of the French 
richesse and almesse. They are now used habitually as plurals in 
English. 

184. Some nouns, singular in form, have always a 
plural meaning, and usually a plural construction ; as, 
cattle , game, fish (when used in certain connections). 

Fish are plentif ul this season. 

Sail, shot, cannon, folk (as a noun of multitude), horse and 
foot, when used to designate cavalry and infantry, come 
under this head. 

Obs.—I n the phrases, a hundred pound, three dozen, five score, two 
brace of partridges, twenty head of cattle, singular nouns have plural 
meanings, and are used in constructions which would seem to 
require plural forms. All of these words, except cattle and brace, 
have a regular plural, when applied to individuals or to distinct 
aggregates. 

185. Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular 
meaning and construction; as, amends , gallows , means , 
news, odds, pains . 

Other words of this kind are ashes, billiards, bitters , clothes, 
embers, measles, summons, hysterics, manners, shambles. 

Obs.—T he names of many of the sciences are singular in con¬ 
struction, though plural in form; as. Optics, Mechanics, Politics, 
Tactics, Mathematics. Logic , Rhetoric, Music, Physic retain the 
singular form. 

186. Nouns denoting the kinds of things, and not the 
individuals composing a class, and many abstract 
nouns, are rarely used in the plural; as, corn , rye, bar¬ 
ley , buckwheat; gold, silver, iron; marl, day , loam , tim¬ 
ber ; gravity, lucidity, gratitude , darkness. 


183. Do any English nouns remain unchanged in the plural ? Enumerate such 
nouns. 184. What nouns have a singular form and a plural use? What other 
nouns come under this head ? 185. What nouns have a plural form and a singular 
use ? Mention other words of this class. 18G. What kinds of nouns have rarely 
any plural ? 




NUMBEK OF NOUNS, 


91 


Oats is, nowever, used to designate that grain. An oat is 
sometimes employed to signify a single specimen of the 
plant. 

Obs. —Words of these kinds are pluralized when varieties or repe¬ 
titions of the things named are referred to; as. Wheats have risen in 
price , but sugars have fallen. We speak also of the specific gravities 
of bodies; the benevolences of a charitable man ; the irons of a wagon ; 
the timbers of a ship. 

187. Nouns which imply plurality of parts have the 
plural form only ; as, lungs, tongs, scissors, clothes ; an - 
nals, archives; matins, vespers; stairs and hose, which 
was originally hosen. Many other nouns are rarely 
used in the singular. 

Obs. — Hose should, perhaps, have been included among the singu¬ 
lar nouns which have a plural signification. The Anglo-Saxon word 
is hosen : the modern German, hose , PI. hosen. But hose may he a 
contraction for hosen. 

188. Nouns derived from foreign tongues, without 
alteration of form, generally preserve their foreign 
plurals ; though some of them receive also the English 
form of the plural. 

The most important words of this kind are: 


PROM THE HEBREW. 


Cherub, 

Teraphim, 


Analysis, 

Antithesis, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Ellipsis, 

Hypothesis, 

Metamorphosis, 

Miasma, 


(cherubim, 
1 cherubs. 


Seraph, 

PROM THE GREEK. 


analyses. 

antitheses. 

crises. 

criteria. 

ellipses. 

hypotheses. 

metamorphoses, 

miasmata, 

miasmas. 


Automaton, 

Basis, 

Oasis, 

Parenthesis, 
Phenomenon, 
Synopsis, 
Synthesis, 
Thesis, 


seraphim, 

seraphs. 


J automata, 

J automatons, 
bases, 
oases. 

parentheses, 

phenomena. 

synopses. 

syntheses. 

theses. 


But we say, Hyperboles, Hyperbolas, and Parabolas. 


PROM THE LATIN. 


Addendum, 

Amanuensis, 

Animalculum, 

Apex, 

Appendix, 


addenda. 

amanuenses. 

animalcula. 

apices, apexes. 

appendices, 

appendixes. 


Genius, 

Genus, 

Ignis-fatuus, 

Index, 

Lamina, 

Larva, 


genii, geniuses, 
genera, 
ignes-fatui. 
indicefe, indexes, 
laminae, 
larvae, larvas. 


What exception is given? 187. What nouns have the plural form only! 
188. How do words derived from foreign tongues form the plural ? 




92 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


from the latin —continued. 


Arcanum, 

Axis, 

Calx, 

Datum, 

Desideratum, 

Dictum, 

Effluvium, 

Erratum, 

Focus, 

Formula, 

Fungus, 

arcana. 

axes. 

calces. 

data. 

desiderata. 

dicta. 

effluvia. 

errata. 

foci. 

j formulae, 

1 formulas, 
j fungi, 

\ funguses. 

Magus, 

Medium, 

Memorandum -j 

Menstruum, 

Nebula, 

Radius, 

Pupa, 

Species, 

Stimulus, 

Stratum, 

Vertex, 

Vortex, 


FROM THE 

FRENCH. 

Beau, 

beaux. 

(Monsieur), -j 


FROM THE 

ITALIAN. 

Bandit, 

Cognoscente, 

Virtuoso, 

banditti. 

cognoscenti. 

virtuosi. 

Conversazione, 

Dilettante, 


magi. 

media, medium? 

memoranda, 

memorandums. 

menstrua. 

nebulae. 

radii. 

pupae, pupas. 

species. 

stimuli. 

strata. 

vertices. 

vortices. 


dilettanti. 


There are, moreover, the plurals, Moslemin , Huezzim, Islamim, Pay - 
nim, etc., from Arabic, Turkish, etc. 


Obs. —Sometimes the native and the English plurals of foreign 
nouns are used in different senses. Thus genii means the spirits of 
Roman mythology; but geniuses , men of extraordinary intellectual 
endowments. 


Indices is chiefly employed as an algebraic term ; but indexes denotes 
tables of reference. 

Hippopotamuses is better than hippopotami■ Ignoramuses and 
bonuses are the correct plural forms, because innm'amus and bonus 
are not Latin nouns, though used as nouns in English. 


Exercises. 

Tell the Plurals of the following nouns. 


Book, roof, staff, box, man, stomach, ruff, potato, knife, 
monarch, fife, folio, brother, sister, echo, key, child, deer, 
army, silver, fly, distich, mouse, sheep, haunch, chorus, 
prince, princess, watch, wisdom, alderman, painting, alley, 
ox, motto, pulse, handful, sheriff, iron, bread, goose, lens, 
salmon, kangaroo, opossum, nuncio, malice, foot, Henry, 
shears, mother-in-law, aide-de-camp, Lieutenant-General, 
scissors, cattle, means, music, pity, pains, Jacob’s staff. 


GENDER OF NOUNS, 


93 


THE CENDER OF NOUNS. 


189. There 
in English. 


are three modes of distinguishing Gender 


1. By the employment of different words; as, father , 
mother. 

2. By a distinctive termination; as, heir, heiress. 

3. By adding a word indicative of the sex; as, a he-goat 
a she-goat. 

1. By the employment of different words. 


( 

maid, 

Dog, 

bitch. 

Man, woman. 

Bachelor, < 

maiden, 

CoR, 

filly. 

Master, miss. 

I 

spinster. 

Drake, 

duck. 

Milter, spawn er. 

Beau, 

belle. 

Earl, 

Countess. 

Nephew, niece. 

Boar, 

sow. 

Father, 

mother. 

Papa, mamma. 

Boy, 

girl. 

Friar, * 


Ram, ewe. 

Bridegroom 

,bride. 

Monk, f 

nun. 

Sir, madam. 

Brother, 

sister. 

Gander, 

goose. 

Sloven, slut. 

Buck, 

doe. 

Gentleman, 

lady. 

Son, daughter. 

Bull, 

cow. 

Hart, 

roe. 

Stag, hind. 

Bullock, ) 


Horse, 

mare. 

Swain, nymph. 

Ox, [ 

heifer. 

Husband, 

wife, 

Uncle, aunt. 

Steer, ) 


King, 

queen. 

Widower, widvw. 

Cock, 

hen. 

Lord, 

lady. 

Wizard, witch. 


2. By a 

CHANGE IN THE TERMINATION. 

Abbot, 

abbess. 

Duke, 

duchess. 

Actor, 

actress. 

Heir, 

heiress. 

Arbiter, 

arbitress. 

Hero, 

heroine. 

Baron, 

baroness. 

Mister, 

. mistress. 

Emperor, 

empress. 

Marquis, 

, marchioness. 

Governor, 

governess. 

Negro, 

negress. 



etc., etc. 

, etc. 



Obs.—I n words of foreign origin gender is usually distinguished 
by retaining the foreign forms of the feminine ; as, 


Administrator, 

Czar, 

Executor, 

Infant, 

Improvisatore, 


administratrix. 

czarina. 

executrix. 

infanta. 

improvisatrice. 


Margrave, 

Signor, 

Sultan, 

Tutor, 

Testator, 


margravine. 

signora. 

sultana. 

tutrix. 

testatrix. 


ADDING A WORD INDICATIVE OF SEX. 


3. 

A cock-sparrow, 
A he-goat, 

A jack-ass, 

A man-cook, 


By 

a hen-sparrow, 
a she-goat. 
a she-ass. 
a jenny-ass. 
a jenny, 
a woman-cook. 


A man-servant. 
A peacock, 

A milkman, 

A bar-keeper, 
A dairy-man, 


a woman-servant, 
a pea-hen. 
a milk-maid, 
a bar-maid, 
a dairy-maid. 


189. By what modes is Gender distinguished in English ? 




94 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Exercises. 

State the Gender of the following nouns. 

Peer, lady, ambassadress, gander, friend, nephew, found¬ 
ress, giantess, poet, co-heiress, damsel, Mayor, heroine, god¬ 
dess, tiger, sultana, sloven, dog, whelp, desk, chair, faun, 
mistress, landlady, ewe, mare, stove, sheep, plank, wagon, 
chain, child, duck, Count, pitcher, prophetess. 

Give the Masculines corresponding to the following Feminines. 

Duck, Duchess, goose, Czarina, lass, mistress, widow, 
lady, daughter, mare, sorceress, executrix, aunt, governess, 
sultana, priestess, princess, belle, Jewess, Landgravine, 
patroness, sister, mother, testatrix, signora. 

Give the Feminines corresponding to the following Masculines. 

Administrator, father, hero, king, prince, man, Sultan, 
Governor, husband, widower, boy, nephew, man-servant, 
heir, abbot, Margrave. 


THE CASES OF NOUNS. 


190. Three Cases are usually assigned to nouns in 
English—the Nominative, the Possessive, and the 
Objective. Nom. Bird. Poss. Bird's. Obj. Bird. 

Obs.— Some grammarians allow only two cases to English nouns, 
*,he nominative and the possessive, because the nominative and the 
objective are always identical in form. Others retain three, because 
the nominative and the objective always differ in use, and differ also 
in form in the pronouns. Ben Jonson admits only two cases ; Wallis, 
none at all. 

If three cases are recognized, and it seems necessary to receive 
three, it would be both judicious and consistent to admit the Dative 
and the Vocative also. 

Those who reduce the number of cases to two, overlook the essen 
tial agreement between virtual and actual inflection. 


190. How many Cases are usually assigned to English nouns ? What art they ? 



CASES OF NOUNS. 


95 


191. The Nominative Case is the simple form of 
the noun, and is employed to name the subject of the 
sentence ; as, The tree fell; trees are vegetable 'productions. 

Tree and trees name the subjects of the sentence, and are 
in the nominative case. 

Obs. —In a direct address or summons—as, John , come here ; Boy’, 
bring me the hoe ; John and boy are ordinarily said to be in the nomi¬ 
native. They agree with that case in form, though they agree with 
it only partially in use. They are really in the Vocative Case, which 
is the case of calling, ordering, invoking, entreating, and is employed 
in imperative and exclamatory sentences, when the subject addressed 
is named. 

192. The Possessive Case denotes possession, prop¬ 
erty, origin, or some other relation of dependence; as, 
the boy's whip , the boys' sports , the horse's hoof, men's 
shoes. 

193. The possessive case singular is formed by add¬ 
ing s with an apostrophe (’«§) to the singular nomina¬ 
tive ; as, boy , boy's. 

But if the noun ends in s, or in the sound of s, and is fol¬ 
lowed by a word beginning with s, the apostrophe alone is 
sometimes used ; as, Mars' hill, for conscience ’ sake. 

Obs. 1.—There is no absolute rule for the use of s with the apos¬ 
trophe, or of the apostrophe alone. Euphony and precision, rather 
than grammatical prescription, determine the form to be employed. 

The best modern usage favors such forms as Mr. Jones's house , 
the witness's testimony , in preference to Mr. Jones' house , the witness' 
testimony. We also say the Joneses rather than the Jones'. 

Obs. 2.—The possessive inflection was, for a long time, supposed 
to be a contraction of the pronoun his. In the sixteenth and seven¬ 
teenth centuries, and even earlier, it was customary to write, the 
soldier his sword for the soldier's stvord , and the dog his tail for the 
dog's tail. But this explanation was entirely erroneous. 

There was a common Anglo-Saxon inflection in es for the Genitive 
Case, which continued to subsist in early English, in the form of es 
or is. Chaucer speaks of Christes Gospel for Christ's Gospel , and 
“ beddis feet" for bed's feet. About the same period, Trevisa sepa¬ 
rated the sign of inflection from the noun, and ' rote “ to Hercules 
is pelers" for to Herculeses pillars. Hence came both the corrupt 
usage Hercules his pillars, and the modern possessive singular. 

194. The possessive case plural is formed by adding 


191. What is the Nominative Case, and for what is it employed? 192. What 
does the Possessive Case denote ? 193. How is the possessive singular formed ? 
194. How is the possessive plural formed ? 



<J6 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


an apostrophe only to the nominative plural when it 
ends in s; but, if the nominative plural does not end 
in s, s with an apostrophe is added; as, the soldiers' 
camp; the children's toys. 

Obs.—T he rule for the formation of the possessive is really the 
same in the singular as in the plural, except that s never follows the 
apostrophe after plurals ending in s. The apparent difference of 
procedure in the singular and iii the plural arises from the fact that 
plural nouns with few exceptions end in s. 


195. The possessive case may often be expressed by 
the objective after the preposition of, or some other 
preposition. A cat's tail is equivalent to the tail of a cat . 
A Winter's Tcde means A Tale for Winter. 

But a noun after of, or another preposition, cannot always 
be converted into a possessive. Pieces of silver are not 
silver's pieces ; and we cannot say the house's bricks for the 
bricks of the house. 

Obs.—T he possessive and the prepositional forms are not always 
equivalent to each other. The man's description , means usually the 
description of something given by the man. The description of the 
man , means the delineation of the man given by some one else. 


190. When two or more nouns closely connected 
together, or phrases made up of several words, are put 
in the possessive case, the possessive inflection is at¬ 
tached to the last word only; as, Beaumont and Fletch¬ 
er's plays ; John, James, and Jane's hooks ; King Charles 
the Second's inglorious reign; a man-of-war's equipment. 

Obs.— Either the words so conjoined constitute a compound name, 
or they denote a single possessive relation. Thus, we should not 
say Cato and Cicero's houses , to signify the house of Cato and the 
house of Cicero; but we might say Cato's and Cicero's houses. 
Cato and Cicero's houses would mean houses belonging to Cato and 
Cicero in partnership. 

197. The Objective Case of nouns is the same in 


195. How may the possessive case be often expressed ? May a noun after the 
preposition of be always converted into a possessive ? 196. Where is the posses¬ 
sive sign placed when several nouns, etc., are put in the possessive ? 197. What ia 
the f Jim of the Objective Case ? and what does it denote ? 



CASES OF NOUNS 


97 


form with the nominative, and denotes the object of a 
transitive verb, or of a preposition ; as, He caught the 
ox by the horns ; the house is for sale. 

Here ox is the object of the catching, and the statement is 
completed by adding the horns , by which the ox was caught. 
Sale completes the statement in regard to the house. Ox, 
horns , sale are in the objective case. 

Obs. 1.—In completing a statement by extending the predicate a 
preposition is usually required before the noun; but not always; 
as, They taught him grammar; my son has brought me a present. 

Obs. 2.—The objective case in English performs the duties of both 
a dative and an accusative case. The two forms existed in the 
Anglo-Saxon, and were partially retained in the earlier periods of 
the English. Remains of a dative case, and numerous instances of 
a dative construction, still survive. The rejection of the dative by 
English grammarians has led to the mistaken condemnation of many 
expressions, thoroughly idiomatic and perfectly correct; as, Give it 
him , saddle me the ass , give Tom this apple. Him and me are true 
datives. Tom is a dative construction, at least. 

The objective case represents an accusative when it expresses the 
direct or immediate object; a dative, when it signifies the indirect 
or secondary object. 

The double import of the case accounts for some verbs taking two 
objectives after them in the active voice, and for the occurrence of 
an objective after such verbs in the passive voice; as, He told them the 
truth—the truth was told them. 

198. English nouns are thus declined (§ 164): 


A Plant. 



Singular. 

Nora. 

A plant. 

Poss. 

A plant’s. 

Obj. 

A plant. 


A Man. 


Singular. 

Nom. 

A man. 

Poss. 

A man’s. 

Obj. 

A man. 


A Witness. 


Plural. 

plants. 

plants’. 

plants. 

The Men. 

Plural. 

Tlie men. 

The men’s. 

The men. 

The Witnesses. 


Singular. 

Nom. A witness. 

Poss. A witness’s (or witness’). 
Obj. A witness. 


Plural. 

The witnesses. 
The witnesses’. 
The witnesses. 


193. Show how English nouns are declined, by declining a plant , a man, a wit • 
mss. Decline chair, lioness, child, paper, goose, father, watch, telegraph. 

5 



98 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Obs.—T he extended and full declension of an English noun has 
been thus presented: 

“Nom. A Man: Gen. A Man's: Dat. A man: Acc. Man: Voc. 
Man. A man (Nom.) may beat another man (Acc.) if he can; but it 
is a man's (Gen.) part to give him , that is, a man (Dat.), fair play. 
Man (Voc.), hold your hand. Here we have the agent or nominativo 
that beats; the patient, or accusative, that is beaten; the person 
standing in the relation of possession, or genitive; and of giving, oi 
dative; finally, in that of being addressed by another, or vocative ” 
Quoted in Fowler’s English Grammar, § 261. 


Exercises. 

Tell Ihe Case of each noun in the following sentences. 

Alexander wept. Caesar conquered Pompey. Hannibal wintered 
at Capua. There is in souls a sympathy with sounds. Addison’s 
Cato is now little read. Greatness confers no exemption from the 
cares and sorrows of life. Othello’s occupation is gone. The pomp, 
and pride, and circumstance of war. The world is a stage. The 
boat is John, and Joseph, and Thomas, and Hemy’s. 

Give the Possessive Plural of ihe following nouns. 

Fly, vultures, citizen, soldier, tree, servant, grass, lily, author, robin, 
hill, sheep, pity, mouse, nation, goose, linnet, women, surface, city, 
surgeon, sister, monarch, children, hen, scholar, princess, brother, 
father, mother, husband, wife, house, niece, nephew, oxen, sixpence. 

Spell the Possessive Singular of the following words. 

Puss, miss, seaman, woman, heiress, heir, spider, sow, cow, lady, 
boy, house, queen, bird, ox, conscience, surface, city, hero, tiger, poet, 
poetess, master, mistress, shepherd, raven, eagle, cat, kitten, child. 

(For additional Exercises and Models for parsing Nouns, see 

p. 220.) 


INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS. 

199. The Personal Pronouns of the First and Second 
Persons receive inflection to denote Number and Case. 

The personal pronoun of the Third Person is in¬ 
flected to denote Gender, as well as number and case. 
The Eelative and Interrogative Pronouns who and 


199. What do the inflections of the Personal Pronouns of the First and Second 

E? ri i? ote ? , What 18 denoted b y the inflections of the personal pronoun of 
ui6 jl mra Jr crson? 




INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 


99 


which are inflected to signify number and case ; tliougli 
they have only a virtual, and not an actual inflection 
for number. What is always neuter. 

The Demonstrative Pronouns this and that have the 
inflection of number only. 

The pronouns one, other, with their compounds such 
a one, another, each other, are inflected like nouns, when 
they are used substantively. 

Obs. 1.—As the pronoun of the first person refers to a present or 
known speaker, and the pronoun of the second person to a present 
or known hearer, the gender of these pronouns is manifested on 
each occasion by the sex of the speaker or hearer. 

Obs. 2.— As the relative refers to an antecedent, and the interroga¬ 
tive to a term afterwards expressed, the gender of each is determined 
hy the gender of the word to which they refer. 

200. The personal pronoun of the first person, I, is 


thus declined: 

Singular. Plural. 

JS T om. I. We. 

Poss. Mine. Ours. 

Obj. Me. Us. 


Obs. 1. —The question has been raised recently, whether there is 
not a real dative case in the declension of the personal pronouns. 
In the phrase, “ Rob me the exchequer ” (Shakesp., Hen. IV.), me is 
unquestionably a dative in sense, as it was also in form. Him , her , 
them , whom correspond in form to the Anglo-Saxon dative, and not 
to the accusative. We must, therefore, recognize a dative case in 
English. 

Obs. 2.—A still more recent question is propounded in regard to 
the use of me as a nominative, and the propriety of such expressions 
as, it is me ; it will be me the next time. Latham and Alford are right 
in considering the phrases to be idiomatic and more correct than, it 
is I; it will be I. The former rejects, the latter approves the cor¬ 
responding lorms of the third person, it is him , it is them. 


201. The personal pronoun of tlie second person, 
thou, is thus declined : 


Singular. 
Isom. Tliou. 
Poss. Thine. 
Obj. Thee. 


Plural. 

You (or Ye). 
Yours. 

You (or Ye). 


For what ar< the Relative and Interrogative Pronouns who and which inflected ? 
What inflection belongs to the Demonstrative Pronouns this and that? What 
other pronouns are inflected, and how are they inflected ? 200. How is the per* 
eonal pronoun 1 declined ? 201. Decline the second personal pronoun, thou. 




100 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Obs. 1.—In many American, and in some English Grammars of the 
English language, my, thy, her, our , your, their are given as posses¬ 
sive cases of the pronouns. This is altogether erroneous. They are 
adjective pronouns, and differ in use and construction from mine, 
thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs. 

Obs. 2.—The nominative plural, ye, has passed entirely out of use. 
except in ornate composition, poetical or rhetorical; though it still 
occurs among the uneducated. It is the true Saxon nominative. 

In the literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, ye 
was habitually used for the objective plural; as, I tell ye, I dare ye, 
and it is still so employed by rustic populations. 

Obs. 3.—The singular of the pronoun of the second person is rarely 
used in modern English, except in the invocation of the Deity, in 
personifications, in poetical and rhetorical expressions, and by the 
religious society of the Friends, or Quakers. 

In English, the plural is always substituted for the singular in ordi¬ 
nary speech. When the plural you is substituted for the singular 
thou, it is a plural of eminence or dignity, and does not become sin¬ 
gular, nor should it be parsed as singular. It always requires a 
plural verb; and remains grammatically plural, though referring to a 
single individual. The solecism, You was very good, has passed al¬ 
most wholly out of use. 


202. Tlie personal pronoun of the third person is, he, 
she, it — they. It has three distinct genders in the sin¬ 
gular, but only one form in the plural. It is declined 
as follows : 




-Singular.— 


Plural. 


Masc. 

Hem. 

Neut. 

Masc., Fem., and Neut. 

Nom. 

He. 

She. 

It. 

They. 

Poss. 

His. 

Hers. 

Its. 

Theirs. 

Obj. 

Him. 

Her. 

It. 

Them. 


Obs. 1.— His is a possessive case only when used without a noun, 
so as to include the substantive meaning within itself: as, That is 
his. When joined with a noun, it is a Possessive Adjective Pro¬ 
noun ; as, That is his cane. 

Obs. ’ll.—Its is an inflection of late introduction into the English 
language. It came in before Shakespeare, and is used fourteen times 
by him. It occurs only twice in Milton ; his is used instead. It is 
not found in the original edition of the authorized version of the 
Scriptures, though it is used without inflection in its stead. In 
Exodus, c. xxxvi ver. 10-16, we still read— 

“ The tabernacle, his tent, and his covering, his taches, and his 
boards, his bars, his pillars, and his sockets,” etc. 

This aids in accounting for the substitution of his for the possess¬ 
ive inflection. 

His was the regular possessive for it. as long as this word was 
habitually written hit or hyt, as it is still sometimes vulgarly pro¬ 
nounced. For numerous examples of the use of hit for it, see Tooke, 
Div. of Purley, pp. 339-342. 


202. Decline the personal pronoun of the third person, he, she, it. 





INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 


101 


Obs. 3. —Though mine and thine are possessive cases, they may be 
used after a preposition: Your sack is in mine ; my land is next to 
theirs. Mine and theirs are possessive cases, dependent upon sack, 
land , understood from the subjects of the sentences; and to these 
nouns the prepositions refer. The construction is exactly analogous 
to, your sack is in John's. My, their , could not be thus used after 
prepositions. 

Obs. 4.—There is a peculiar construction of the possessive case 
which must be recognized as correct, but which has not received 
any satisfactory explanation: “ This heart of mine will break 
“ Sing to the Lord, all ye saints of His." 

From the occurrence of f the same construction with nouns—as, 
that charming voice of Jenny Lind's —it is plain that mine and Ms are 
possessive cases. It is hence supposed that nouns in the objective 
case are required after the prepositions, and Quackenbos suggests 
possessing , owning , etc., as the substantives understood. But this 
will not solve all the difficulties presented by such forms, and is in¬ 
appropriate in others. The possessive form peculiarly denotes pos¬ 
session. 

A hat of mine is simply one of my hats— hats being the noun that 
may be supplied after of. To this type may be assigned all ye saints 
of His —that is, of His saints. The objection, that “ all saints” can¬ 
not be a part of “ His saints,” is logical, not grammatical, and is 
scarcely tenable on logical grounds, when speaking of “ the innu¬ 
merable saints of the Lord.” 

But no such explanations will suffice for such phrases as, this 
heart of mine, this body of mine, this life of mine. This exceptional 
employment of the possessive case is probably a surviving relic of 
the more ancient construction, when there were distinct forms for 
the genitive, dative, and accusative, and when these cases were 
regularly governed by prepositions. The pronouns are true geni¬ 
tives, after a preposition. Hence, all ye saints of His is exactly 
equivalent to, all ye saints of Him ; and this heart of mine corres¬ 
ponds to this heart of me. 

In Mulligan’s Grammar (Struct. Engl. Lan., § 75, pp. 191-2; § 81, 

g . 239), are some very judicious notes on this subject. He omits, 
owever, all consideration of the most enigmatical forms of the con¬ 
struction. 

203. The relative pronouns who and which are thus 
declined: 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Nom. Who. Which. 

Poss. Whose. Whose. 

Obj. Whom. Which. 

Obs.— The compound relatives whoever, whosoever, etc., are de¬ 
clined like the simple relatives. 

204. The declension of the interrogative pronouns 
ivho, luhich, and their compounds, is exactly the same as 
that of the relatives. 


203. Decline the relative pronouns who and which. 204. What is the declension 
of the interrogative pronouns who and which ? 



102 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


205. The demonstrative pronouns this and that are 
declined only by number. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

This. These. 

That. Those. 

Exercises. 

Tell the Number, Gender, and Case of the Pronouns in the follow¬ 
ing sentences. 

Whose is this image and superscription? Be ours the 
praise; be theirs the shame. These processes are experiments 
of mine: I hope that they will succeed better than yours 
or his have done. Whom shall we ask to aid us ? You are 
mistaken in ascribing this letter to him ; I am sure it must 
be hers. He felt for others’ woes, remembering his own. 
It is strange that they should have been so soon overtaken 
by the consequences of their folly. There are some apples; 
bring me one, and divide the others among yourselves. 
They shared each other’s sorrows, and wept each other’s tears. 

(For Models and Exercises in parsing Pronouns, see p. 220.) 

THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

206. Adjectives in English admit of inflection only 
for the purpose of expressing Comparison, or different 
degrees of the quality denoted by the adjective; as, 
great, greater, greatest. 

Obs.—I n the Latin, Greek, and many other languages, adjectives 
are inflected like nouns, for the sake of distinguishing number, gen¬ 
der, and case, and of agreeing in form with the nouns which they 
qualify. 

In English, adjectives receive no such inflections, or changes of 
form. 

207. Those adjectives, which signify qualities capable 
of being increased, alone admit of comparison. Thus, 

205. How are the demonstrative pronouns this and that declined? 206. For 
what purposes only are adjectives inflected in English? 201. What adjectives 
alone admit of Comparison ? 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 


103 


great, wise, may be compared; but not Almighty, Om¬ 
niscient. 

208. There are three degrees of comparison—the 
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative; as, 
pos. wise, comp, wiser, superl. wisest. 


Obs. 1.—The decree, in which a quality is possessed, is determined 
only relatively, and not absolutely, by the degrees of comparison. 
Thus John may be taller than James , but Tom taller than John. The 
tallest man in one company may be the shortest in another. 

Obs. 2. —There are only three degrees of comparison distinguished 
by inflection; but the relative degree in which any quality is pos¬ 
sessed may be more precisely indicated by the employment of other 
words ; as. The sick child is much worse to-day; John is two inches 
taller than James; Thompson is by far the tallest man in the crowd. 

Obs. 3.—There is a comparison of diminution as well as a com¬ 
parison of augmentation. This is never formed by inflection, but 
by the use of the words less and least; as, less worthy , least worthy. 


209. The Positive Degree is expressed by the simple 



form of the adjective, and denotes 


quality 


signified by the word; as, strong, wise, good—a strong 
fortress, a wise man, a good child. 


Obs. —The positive is rightly considered one of the degrees of 
comparison, for it necessarily implies comparison, but only by dis¬ 
tinguishing things which possess the attribute indicated by the 
adjective from those things which do not possess it. Thus, the ex¬ 
pression a wise man does not compare wise men together, but it 
contrasts the man who is wise with those who are not wise. 


210. The Comparative Degree is formed by add¬ 
ing the termination r or er to the positive; as, strong , 



211. The comparative degree is usually employed in 
comparing two things only, and denotes that the quality 
ascribed to both is possessed in a higher degree by the 
one than it is by the other; as, My task is harder than 


yours. 


208. How many degrees of comparison are there ? What are they ? 209. How 
is the positive degree expressed ? What does it denote ? 210. How is the com- 

B arative degree formed ? Give examples of the comparative degree. 211. How is 
ie comparative employed, and what does it denote ? 



i04 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


Obs. 1.—An individual may be compared with a class, or with all 
the other individuals of the class to which he belongs; as, Solomon 
was wiser than the philosophers ; Solomon was wiser than other men. 

So the rest of a class, or a portion of a class, may be compared 
with one of its members ; as, Others were wiser than John. 

Obs. 2.— There is a remarkable and idiomatic use of the compara¬ 
tive with the article, as in the phrase, The more , the merrier. The is 
a dative or instrumental case—corresponding to the Latin quo-eo , 
and derived from Anglo-Saxon and Old English thy. The same con¬ 
struction is found in German and French ; je cher,je lieber ; tant le 
mieux. 

212. The Superlative Degree is formed by adding 
the termination st or est to the positive ; as, strong-est, 
great-est , ivis-e-st. 

213. The superlative degree is employed in compar¬ 
ing together all things contemplated as possessing the 
quality ascribed to them by the adjective, and denotes 
the possession of the quality in the highest degree in 
which it is possessed by any of them ; thus, Adam was 
the first man. 

This is the healthiest grape-vine of the seven —that is, of ah 
intended to be compared. 

Solomon was the wisest man —that is, of all men. 

Aristotle was the greatest philosopher of antiquity —that is, 
of all the philosophers considered in connection with him. 

Obs. 1.—It is customary to state that the superlative cannot prop¬ 
erly be used when only two things are compared. Such precision is 
arbitrary, and is at variance with the practice of the best writers, 
and with the usage of the most cultivated society. 

There is no impropriety in saying that Caesar and Cicero were both 
statesmen , but Caesar was the ablest. The use of the superlative im¬ 
plies that both were able. In the assertion, Jenkins is wiser than 
Tompkins , it is not alleged that Jenkins is wise. All that is stated 
is, that Jenkins has more wisdom than Tompkins, though both may 
be fools. 

Unquestionably, the proper form for the comparison of two things 
is ordinarily the comparative, and for more than two the superlative. 
But the use of the superlative in the comparison of two things only, 
is not to be indiscriminately condemned. 

Obs. 2.—It is a just rule that the thing to which the superlative 
adjective is applied, should be included in the class of objects with 
which the comparison is made. Yet Milton writes, 

Adam, the goodliest man of men since born 
His sons; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. 


212. How is the superlative degree formed ? Give examples of the superlative 
degree. 213. How is the superlative employed, and what does it denote ? 




COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 


105 


Adam was notone of his own sons, nor one “of men since bom.” 
Eve was not one of her own daughters. The phrase may he admired, 
but is scarcely to he imitated. Milton, however, should not be cen¬ 
sured for catching a grace beyond the reach of rules. 

214. Tlie comparative and superlative degrees are 
formed by adding r and st to the positive, instead of er 
and est, only when the adjective ends in e; as white, 
whiter, ivhitest. 

When the adjective ends in y following a consonant, the 
final vowel is changed into i before the inflections er, est; 
as, pretty , prettier , prettiest. 

When the adjective ends in a consonant following a single 
vowel, the consonant is doubled; as, sacl , sadder , saddest. 

215. Adjectives consisting of more than one syllable 
are rarely compared by the use of the inflections er 
and est . 


In most dissyllables, and in nearly all polysyllables, the 
degrees of comparison are expressed by prefixing the ad¬ 
verbs more and most to the positive ; as, honest , more honest, 
most honest; respectable , more respectable , most respectable. 

Obs. 1.—No precise rule can be given on this subject. The em¬ 
ployment of either form, at least so far as dissyllables are concerned. 
Is determined by euphony or by custom. Adjectives of one syllable, 
and dissyllables ending in le pi'eceded by a consonant, or having the 
accent on the second syllable, usually receive the inflections; as, 
young, younger, youngest; ample, ampler, amplest ; profound, pro¬ 
founder, profoundest. But we say also, tender, tenderer, tenderest; 
dirty, dirtier, dirtiest; and not brittle , brittler, brittlest. There ia 
no settled rule. 

Obs. 2.—Such phrases as more honest, most honest , are not true 
degrees of comparison of the adjective honest. They contain the 
comparative and superlative of the adverb much, and are equivalent 
in meaning to the proper degrees of comparison, but not in etymolo¬ 
gical character. 

Obs. 3.—A few adjectives form the superlative by adding most aa 
a termination to the comparative, or to the comparative or a pre¬ 
sumed positive indifferently. They are, nether, nethermost; lower, 
lowermost; (up), upper, uppermost, upmost; (out), outer or utter , 
outermost, outmost, uttermost, utmost; (in), inner, innermost, inmost; 
(hind,) hinder, hindermost, hindmost. Topmost is formed on the 


214. When are the comparative and the superlative formed by adding r and st ? 
What change takes place when the adjective ends in y ? What change is required 
when the adjective ends in a consonant after a single vowel? 215. When are the 
inflections er and est discarded ? How is comparison expressed when these inflec¬ 
tions are not used ? With what adjectives ? 

5* 



106 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


same principle from the noun top , used adjectively. So foremost is 
formed from fore. 

Obs. 4.— Less and least are employed to denote degrees of diminu¬ 
tion, in the same manner that more and most are used to signify in¬ 
creasing degrees of a quality; as, less honest , least honest. 

Obs. 5.— Better and best are conjoined with past participles in the 
same way as more and most with adjectives; as, This man is better 
known ; that is best remunerated. But more and most may be usually 
employed in the same connection. 

• 

216. Some of tlie most common, because most an¬ 
cient, adjectives are compared irregularly. 


POS. 

Bad, 

Far, 

(Forth), 

(Fore), 

Good, 

Late, 


COMP. 

worse, 

farther, 

further, 

former, 

better, 

latter, 

later, 


SUP. 

worst. 

farthest. 

furthest. 

foremost. 

first. 

best. 

last.. 

latest. 


POS. COMP. 

Little, less, lesser, 
*“* 

(Nigh), -j n iorh er , 

r,,. j elder, 

01d ’ j older, 


SUP. 

least. 

most. 

next. 

nighest. 

eldest. 

oldest. 


Obs. 1.— The irregularity of these comparisons is much greater in 
appearance than in reality, and relates rather to the present type of 
the language than to its primitive stages. 


Obs. 2. —Lesser and worser are perhaps not really double compar¬ 
atives, but they are certainly used and regarded as such in modem 
English. Double comparatives and double superlatives, whether 
formed by inflection, or by the aid of more and most , have been gen¬ 
erally condemned as ungrammatical; yet they are found in all 
languages, and in the best writers in all languages. They are fre¬ 
quent m English, and especially so in the purest English, the Angli¬ 
can version of the Scriptures, and in Shakespeare. 

“And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the 
day, and the lesser light to rule the night.”—Gen. i. 16. 

Less would fail to convey the same meaning as lesser. So it is in 
speaking of “ the lesser lights of heaven." The moon is the less 
light; the stars are the lesser lights. 

Byron says, 


Athos, Olympus, Atlas made 

These hills seem things of lesser dignity. 

Lesser deepens the contrast. 

In Shakespeare’s Hamlet is found “ owrmore rawer breath ;” in his 
Tempest, “ The Duke of Milan and his more braver daughter.” Can 
any objection be made to liis/ar braver daughter ? Can any objec¬ 
tion be made to the one phrase which may not be extended to the 
other? We must not reprehend as ungrammatical what the usage 
of the best poets and best prose writers has sanctioned. Theie is 
frequent occasion to repeat the exclamation of Richard Taylor— 
“Alas, for the poor children who are doomed to be tormented out 
of their mother tongue by these grammar-makers 1” (Add. Notes to 
Tooke, Diversions of Purley, p. xxviii.) 

Obs. 3.—The double superlative stands on the same footing with 
the double comparative, but its employment is more frequent and 
consequently more familiar. 


216. What Adjectives are irregularly compared? Give the comparisons of these 
adjectives. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 


107 


“ After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee ” 
Acts, xxvi. 5. So —The Most Highest God ; The Most Mightiest. 

“ We will grace his heels 
With the most boldest and best hearts of Rome.” 

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, ITT. i. 

“ This was the most unkindest cut of all.”—Ibid., sc. ii. 

These double comparisons always convey a different meaning from 
the simple forms. 

Obs. 4.— It is usually said that adjectives implying the complete 
or highest possession of a quality cannot he compared. This is not 
altogether correct. Some adjectives signify attributes so fixed and 
unalterable that increase or diminution is wholly incompatible with 
the nature of what is expressed by them. Such are, Almighty, All 
wise. All-powerful, Omniscient, Omnipotent, Infinite, principal, per¬ 
pendicular, triangular, spherical, square, in their strictest accepta¬ 
tions. But true, perfect, complete, immense, chief, supreme, extreme, 
universal, and most words of the like character, may be and are com¬ 
pared. In the Scriptures, even “ a far more abounding and eternal 
weight of glory" is spoken of. 

We find, and are not warranted in repudiating such forms as, 
truest, chiefest, supremest, extremest, most immense, most invaluable, 
most excellent, more general, more universal. Good writers will avoid 
their use, except upon rare and necessary occasions, but there aro 
occasions when most of them may become necessary. 

Obs. 5.—The adjectives, prior, anterior, exterior, inferior, interior , 
superior, ulterior, etc., are comparatives in Latin, but they are posi¬ 
tives in English. They are not followed by than, nor is former. 
They should never be joined with the adverbs more and most, 

Obs. 6. —The termination ish sometimes lessens the degree of the 
quality signified by the simple adjective ; as, black, blackish ; white, 
whitish. This peculiarity does not belong to the consideration of 
the degrees of comparison; nor do the other modes of modifying the 
intensity of the quality signified, through the intervention of such 
words as much, somewhat, very, a little, a little more. 


Exercises. 

Tell the Comparative and the Superlative Degrees of the following 

adjectives. 

Mighty, sweet, able, generous, brave, warm, little, manly, 
red, precious, safe, glad, industrious, good, gentle, excellent, 
lovely, amiable, zealous, lively, old, ill, adventurous, discreet, 
rash, late, many, dutiful, active, eternal, external, wooden, 
yearly, severe, ignorant, perpendicular, matchless, colossal, 
square, right, beautiful, theatrical, decent. 

Correct the following errors in Comparison. 

Interestingest, manyer, mucher, baddest, littlest, more 
tall, hoter, livelyer, beautifullest, biger, excellenter, wisestest, 
extremer, more inferior, goodest, graciousest, colossalest. 


108 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


I?i what degree are the following adjectives ? 

Circular, roundest, more agreeable, first, hinder, stronger, 
upmost, worse, utmost, less, milder, next, least, new, more, 
fewest, best, universal, elder, riotous, former, uppermost. 
(For Models and Exercises in parsing Adjectives, see p. 220.) 


COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 


217. Some adverbs are compared like adjectives, by 
means of the inflections er and est ; or by irregular in¬ 
flection ; as, 


Early, earlier, earliest. 
Far, farther, farthest. 
Forth, further, furthest. 
Ill, worse, worst. 
Much, more, most. 


Little, less, least 

Oft, or often, oftener, oftenest. 

- rather, - 

Soon, sooner, soonest 

Well, better, best. 


Obs. —All, or nearly all of these words were originally adjectives; 
and adjectives in all languages are often employed adverbially. The 
adjective qualifies a substantive or noun; the adverb qualifies an 
attribute or predicate, by whatever part of speech it may be fox-med. 


218. Many adverbs admit the expression of degree 
by the employment of the adverbs of comparison, more 
and most ; as, wisely , more wisely , most wisely. 

(For Models and Exercises in parsing Adverbs, see p. 220.) 


THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

219. Verbs are inflected or conjugated to denote 
Voice, Number, Person, Tense, and Mood ; as, I strike , 
I am struck; I am , we are; I write , thou writest , he 
writes ; I am , I teas ; I am, if I be. 


217. How are some Adverbs compared ? 218. How do many adverbs express in- 
crease in the degree of a quality? 219. For what purposes are Verbs inflected or 
conjugated ? 







CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 


109 


Ob’!. —Most of the inflections of verbs in English are virtual, and 
Vut actual inflections; or the place of inflections is occupied by aux- 
x’ary verbs, as is the case throughout the Passive Voice. 

220. Transitive Verbs liave two voices, the active 
and the passive ; as, Ccesar vanquished Pompey ; Pom¬ 
pey was vanquished by Ccesar. 

Obs. —No verbs except transitive verbs, or verbs used transi¬ 
tively, have a passive voice. 

The reason of this is manifest. Only those verbs which transmit 
an action to an object, different from the subject of the verb, are 
capable of the reverse process of denoting an action experienced by 
the subject from a distinct agent, expressed or undefined. Unless 
the word vanquished were competent to signify that the defeat in¬ 
flicted by Caesar was inflicted on Pompey, the same word, under a 
different modification, could not be employed to signify that the 
defeat was received by Pompey. The transitive verb expresses an 
action which is completed in an object. In the passive voice this 
object becomes the subject of the verb, and suffers the action. What 
was declared by the active voice to be the act of an agent, is an¬ 
nounced by the passive as the suffering of a patient. Hence arise 
both the distinction of the voices, and the difference of the designa¬ 
tions. 

221. Voice is tlie form of the verb which indicates 
whether the subject of the verb acts or is acted upon ; 
as, I ploughed the field (act.); the field was ploughed by me 
(pass.) 

222. The Active Voice expresses an action per¬ 
formed by an agent upon an object; as, The horse kicked 
the man. 

The agent is also the subject of the verb, and the object 
completes the assertion (or predication) made by the verb. 

Kicked is a verb in the active voice, denoting the action 
or act of kicking. 

The horse is the agent by which the kicking is performed, 
and is the subject of the verb. 

The man is the object of the kicking, and completes the 
sentence by telling what the horse kicked. 

223. The Passive Voice expresses an action received 
or experienced; as, The man ivas kicked ; the man was 
kicked by the horse. 


220. How many Voices have Transitive Verbs ? What are they? 221. What is 
voice? 222. What does the Active Voice express? 223. What does the Passive 
Voice express ? 



110 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Here, the kicking , signified by the verb, is received or ex¬ 
perienced by the man, and the man is the subject of the verb. 

Obs. —With verbs in the passive voice either the agent of the 
action is suppressed, or is expressed indirectly through the inter¬ 
vention of a preposition. The man was kicked by something un¬ 
mentioned ; or was kicked by the horse , by a mule , by another man , by 
several other men , etc. 

There are some exceptions to this, dependent upon a peculiar con¬ 
struction of the active voice of some verbs, or the peculiar case of 
the nouns and pronouns; as, He was taught grammar ; Grammar 
was taught him. The explanation of this idiom is reserved for 
another occasion. 

224. The parts of the passive voice are throughout 
formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be; as, I am 
hurt , I was hurt, I shall be hurt. 

Obs. —The auxiliary verb to be is always followed by the Past Par¬ 
ticiple in the formation of the parts of the passive voice. 

225. The orderly enumeration of all the parts of the 
verb is called the Conjugation of the verb. 

Obs. 1.—In briefly conjugating a verb, only its principal parts are 
mentioned, because from fhem"all the other parts are formed by a 
uniform procedu»e. These principal parts, in English verbs, are 
the Present Indicative, the Past, or Preterite Indicative, and the 
Past Participle; as, hate , hated , hated. 

Obs. 2.—The conjugation of the active voice is called the Active 
Conjugation ; the conjugation of the passive voice is called the Pas¬ 
sive Conjugation. 


THE INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB FOR NUMBER AND PERSON. 

226. Yerbs have, in some of their parts, two Num¬ 
bers, the Singular and the Plural; as, He loves; they 
love . 


The nature of number in Grammar has been explained in 
connection with nouns. (§§ 165, 166.) 

Obs. 1.—The parts of the verb which are affected by number, are 
only those which make declarations, or express commands, entreat¬ 
ies—those parts which are used, according to the language of many 
grammai'ians, in making assertions. 

It is only those parts which can be used as finite verbs in a sen¬ 
tence, which receive the distinction of number. 

Obs. 2.—In early English, the number of verbs was distinguished 
by a plural inflection; as, / love, we loven. 


224. IIow are the parts of the passive voice formed ? 225.What is meant by th# 
conjugation of the verb? 226. What Numbers belong to verbs? 




THE TENSES OF VERBS. 


Ill 


227. Verbs have three Persons in each number, the 
First, the Second, and the Third Person; as, 

Sing. 1st Pers. I love. 2d Pers. Thou lovest. 3d Pers. He loveth or loves. 

Plur. “ We love. “ You love. “ They love. 

The nature of person in Grammar has been explained in 
connection with pronouns. (§ 111.) 

228. The First Person Singular has no personal 

inflection ; as, I love, I loved. 

The Second Person Singular is formed by adding 
st or est to the first person ; as, I love , thou lovest; I loved, 
thou lovedst; I hurt, thou hurtest. 

The Third Person Singular is formed by adding th 
or eth, or s or es to the first person ; as, I love, he loveth 
or loves ; I go, he goeth or goes. 

In the plural there is no personal inflection. 

Obs. 1.—These inflections are found only in certain parts of the 
verb, and they are not found in all verbs. Must has no inflection. 

Obs. 2.—The inflection of the second person singular is almost en¬ 
tirely disused, in consequence of the employment of the plural of 
dignity. In a few verbs, it is formed by the letter t ; as, art , wert , 
shalt , wilt. 

Obs. 3.—The inflection of the third person singular in th or eth 
has also now fallen into disuse. 


THE TENSES OF VERBS. 

229. Tense is the distinction of time, and is ex¬ 
pressed by variations of the verb ; as, I love, I have 
loved, I loved. 

I put your letter in my pocket now. I put your letter in the 
mail yesterday. I had seen your letter put in the mail-bag be¬ 
fore I would leave. 

Obs.— Tense and time are not equivalent terms. Tense is a 
technical term of grammar, and denotes time solely in connection 
with the different forms and applications of the verb. 


227. What, are the Persons of verbs ? 228. What is the personal inflection of 
the First Person Singular ? What is the inflection of the Second Person Singular ? 
What are the inflections of the Third Person Singular ? Has the plural any 
inflection for the persons ? 229. What is Tense? 



112 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


230. There are three principal tenses in English, 
Present, Past, and Putnre ; as, I write, I ivrote, I shall 
or will write. 1 write now —present; I ivrote yester¬ 
day —past or preterite; I shall or will write again to- 
morro w —future. 

Obs. —Of these three principal tenses, the English verb, in its 
simple state, has only two, the present and the past; as, I write , and 
I wrote. 

The future is formed only by the help of an auxiliary, and is a 
compound tense. 

Present, past, and future constitute the main divisions of time. 
We can conceive of no other divisions which are not subdivisions of 
these; but such subdivisions may be indefinitely multiplied, and are 
multiplied to a great extent in English by the use of auxiliary verbs. 

231. There are only two tenses hi English which are 
indicated by the inflection of the principal verbs. 
These are the present and the past; as, I love, I loved ; 
I seek, I sought. 

Obs. 1.— These tenses are both indefinite ; that is to say, they in¬ 
dicate the present and past acts of loving and seeking , without defin¬ 
ing by any limits the time of their commencement, duration, or 
conclusion. I love expresses the present act of loving , which may 
or may not have commenced at a remote anterior time, and may or 
may not be prolonged to a distant future. So, I sought expresses 
the past act of seeking , without making any reference to the point 
of time in the past when the act commenced or terminated. 

The English verb has no specific future formed by inflection. The 
English future is formed by means of auxiliaries. This additional 
tense was a late introduction into the language. 

Obs. 2. —This indefinite indication of time by the simple tenses of 
the English verb explains many of the apparent anomalies of con¬ 
struction in English, a simple tense being used indefinitely when 
other tongues would have recourse to a specific inflection for the 
precise exhibition of the time, or of the character of the time de¬ 
noted. Thus the present indicative of the English verb may be 
used to signify present, past, or future time, according to the re¬ 
quirements of the sentence in which it occurs. My head aches — 
present. Caesar describes Gaul— past. He leaves the country by the 
next vessel— future. Thus, too. the habit of doing anything is ex¬ 
pressed in English by the present— He lives frugally. 

232. The Present Tense, in its simple form, denotes 
an action or condition subsisting at the time of speak¬ 
ing ; as, I dig, I move, I sit; I am hurt, it is dug, it is 
written. 


230. How many principal tenses are there in English ? What are they? 
231. How many and what tenses are indicated by the inflection of the principal 
verb ? 232. What does the Present Tense in its simple form denote ? 




TENSES OF VERBS 


113 


233. Tlie Past Tense, or preterite, in its simple 
form, denotes tliat an action or condition is ascribed to 
the past time—to time past at the time of speaking; 
as, I dug the garden , they moved the house , the letter was 
written . 


Obs. —The contest alone determines whether the action or con¬ 
dition specified was completed, or was left unfinished. 

234. The Future Tense represents the action or 
condition as yet to happen; as, I shall depart at once, 
I will do it again , the man will die. 

235. The future tense in English is formed by means 
of the auxiliaries shall and will. 

Shall in the first person denotes simple futurity; in the 
second and third persons it denotes compulsion or constraint 
also : I shall go, you shall go, he shall go. Will in the second 
and third persons denotes simple futurity; in the first person 
it signifies determination: I will go, you will go, he will go. 

Obs. 1.— The correct employment of these auxiliaries constitutes 
one of the chief difficulties experienced in the acquisition and use 
of the English language. It is a very shibboleth to Scotch, Irish, 
French, and other foreigners. It is curiously illustrated by the anec¬ 
dote reported of a Scotchman who was drowning, while an English¬ 
man stood by without offering any aid, because the Scotchman cried 
out: I will he drowned, and nobody shall save me. 

The will be drowned expressed a fixed determination. The nobody 
shall save me was a positive prohibition of all assistance. He would 
have been rescued at once if he had said: Jshall be drowned, and 
nobody will save me. 

Obs. 2.—The discrimination of all the cases in which shall and 
should , will and would should he employed, and the assignment of 
the special reasons which determine the use of these words in each 
case, would require a more minute and diligent investigation than 
our space affords. But a simple rule has been often cited, which 
suffices for the guidance of the learner in all ordinary instances: 

In the first person simply shall foretells; 

In will a threat or else a promise dwells. 

Shall in the second and the third does threat; 

Will simply then foretells the future feat. 

Obs. 3.— The reason for the difference in the use of shall and will 
as future auxiliaries arises mainly from the fact that these words are 
used both as auxiliaries and as principal verbs. Used as auxiliaries 
simply, they denote futurity, and nothing more. Used as principal 


233. What does the Past Tense, or Preterite, in its simple form denote ? 
234. What does the Future Tense represent ? 235. How is the future tense in 
English formed ? What does the Future Auxiliary shall denote in the different 
persons ? What does the future auxiliary will denote in the different persons ? 



114 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


verbs also, they denote obligation or resolution in accordance with 
their Anglo-Saxon and Latin origin respectively. 

Obs. 4.—In interrogative sentences shall or will is employed ac¬ 
cording as the one or the other is required in the answer. 

Obs. 5.— Should and would are usually employed like shall and will. 
In conditional clauses shall and should are used to express simple 
futurity. 

“ All the shades of meaning cannot be known, and can only be 
learned by use from Englishmen.”—Hyde Clarke, Eng. Gram., p. 88. 

236. Besides the three principal tenses, other tenses 
are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs, to express 
modifications of present, past, and future time. 

Obs. 1.—These tenses are exceedingly numerous, if all the com¬ 
pound tenses which may be thus formed and which are in habitual 
use, are enumerated and arranged throughout the moods of the act¬ 
ive and the passive voice. 

“ English is so rich of tense-formulae, that there are but few in 
other tongues for each of which it has not one of its own.”—Barnes’ 
Philolog. Gram., § 476. 

Obs. 2.—It is through this multiplication of the compound tenses 
of the vei’b that the English language derives much of its wealth 
of expression, its variety, pliability, and precision. 

“ They may talk as they will,” says Southey in The Doctor, “of 
the dead languages. Our auxiliary verbs give us a power which the 
ancients with all their varieties of mood arid inflection of tense 
never could attain.” 

237. There are three secondary tenses formed by the 
use of the auxiliary verb have —the Present-Perfect, 
the Past-Perfect, and the Future-Perfect; as, I have 

loved, I had loved, I shall have loved. 

Obs.—T hese tenses denote that the action or condition is complete 
or perfect at the time to which the verb refers. 

238. The Present-Perfect Tense denotes that the 
action, condition, or event is complete or finished at 
the present time ; as, The tree has fallen, the train has 
passed, the hoy has lost his knife. 

Obs. —The action, condition, or event may have transpired at an 
indefinite past time, but it is spoken of as completed or perfect now. 
It always involves a reference to the present time, either by the 
relation of the action to the present time, or by the continuance of 
its effects to the present time. 

This present import of the perfect is curiously illustrated by the 
blunder of a freedwoman, who wrote, “ Gabriel is dead , he has had 
the measles.” 

In order that the perfect has had might be correctly used, Gabriel 
should have recovered from the measles, and should have been living 
at the time of the communication. 


236. Are there any other tenses besides the three principal tenses ? How are 
they formed ? 237. How many secondary tenses are formed w ith the auxiliary 
have f What are they ? 238. What does the Present-Perfect Tense denote ? 



TENSES OF VERBS. 


115 


239. The Past-Perfect Tense denotes that an ac¬ 
tion, condition, or event, was completed or perfect, 
before something else, that is past also, had happened ; 
as, He had lost his sight when his wife died . 

240. The Future-Perfect denotes that the action, 
condition, or event, indicated by the verb, will be com¬ 
pleted or perfect before some other event which is yet 
to happen ; as, I shall have done my task before sunset. 

Obs. —Here, both the completion of my task and the setting of the 
sun are spoken of as future; but it is stated that my task will be 
completed or rendered perfect before sunset, which is the more re¬ 
mote future event. This form is rare in the Passive. 

241. These six tenses, the Present, the Past, the 
Present-Perfect, the Past-Perfect, the Future, and the 
Future-Perfect, constitute the regular tenses of the 
English verb ; as, I love, I loved, I have loved, I had 
loved, I shall love, I shall have loved . 

Three of these tenses are considered principal tenses—the 
present, the past, and the future: I love, I loved, I shall 
love. 

Three of them are considered secondaiy tenses—the pres¬ 
ent-perfect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect: I have 
loved, I had loved, I shall have loved. 

Two of them are simple tenses formed by the direct in¬ 
flection of the verb—the present and the past: I love , I 
loved. 

Four of them are compound tenses formed hy the em¬ 
ployment of an auxiliary verb—the future, the present-per¬ 
fect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect: I shall or will 
love, I have loved, I had loved, I shall or will have loved. 

242. The distinction of tense is applied also to infin- 


239. What does the Past-Perfect Tense denote ? 240. What does the Future- 
Perfect denote ? 241. What are the regular tenses of the verb ? Which are the 
three principal tenses ? Which are the three secondary tenses ? How many, 
and what are the simple tenses ? How many compound tenses are there ? What 
are they ? 242. Is tense applicable to infinitives and participles ? 



116 


ENGLISH GKAMMAR 


itives and participles; as, to love , to have loved ; loving, 
loved , having loved; being loved , been loved , having been 
loved. 

243. The six regular tenses of the verb have tense- 
forms corresponding to them to express the continu¬ 
ance or progression of an action or condition. 

These tense-forms are made with the auxiliary verb be and 
the present participle, and have been termed the progressive 
form of the verb. 

They are, I am making, 1 was making, I have been making , 
I had been making, I shall or will be making, I shall or will 
have been making. 

There is no progressive form in the passive voice. 

Obs. 1.—All verbs do not admit the progressive form even in the 
active voice. When the signification conveyed by the verb distinctly 
implies continuance, the progressive form should not be employed. 
Thus it is improper to say, / am remembering ; I was remembering. 

Obs. 2.—There is a peculiar construction in English, which is ex¬ 
pressed by the progressive form of the verb, and has apparently a 
passive import. This idiom is exemplified by the expressions, The 
house is building , the bread is baking. These forms are correct and 
idiomatic English, notwithstanding all the objections that have been 
made to them. They were condemned by many grammarians, who 
proposed to use in their stead such forms as, The house is being built, 
which is a solecism, and wholly incorrect. This substitute was re¬ 
ceived with much favor for about a quarter of a century, but was 
never adopted generally by elegant writers, and has latterly been 
repudiated by nearly all correct authors, and by the best gram¬ 
marians. This usage appears to be reviving. 

The form is a contraction for the earlier expression, The house is 
a-building , in which a is an inseparable preposition, and building is 
not a participle, nor a part of a compound tense, but a noun. This 
is illustrated by the analogous construction which is found in the 
early English literature. The house is on building , that is, in the 
process of building. “ They fell in talkinge." 

244. Tlie two simple or primitive tenses of tlie Eng¬ 
lish verb, the present and the past (preterite), admit a 
third tense-form, which is made with the auxiliary verb 
do ; as, I do love , I did love. 

This form is called the Emphatic form of the verb, be- 


243. What other tense-forms correspond to the six regular tenses of the verb ? 
How are these tenses formed, and what are they called ? Is there any progressive 
form for the passive voice ? 244. What is the third tense-form of the simple 

teases ? What is this form called ? 




TENSES OF VERBS. 


117 


cause it is always used when the verb is employed with 
much emphasis. 

Obs.—T his form is usually employed, except in poetical and ora¬ 
torical compositions, in interrogations and negations, because these 
are necessarily in some degree emphatic. Do Hove? Did llove? 
I do not love. I did not love. 


245. The tenses of the verb may be thus arranged: 


Present. Indefinite. I love. 

Incomplete. (Progressive.) I am loving. 

Complete. (Present-Perfect.) I have loved. 

“ “ (Progressive.) I have been loving. 

“ Emphatic. I do love. 


Past. Indefinite. 

Incomplete. (Progressive.) 
Complete. (Past-Perfect.) 
“ “ (Progressive.) 

“ Emphatic. 


I loved. 

I was loving. 

I had loved. 

I had been loving. 
I did love. 


Future. Indefinite. I shall or will love. 

Incomplete. (Progress.) I shall or will be loving. 

“ Complete. (Future-Perfect.) I shall or will have loved. 

(Progressive.) I shall or will have been loving. 


246. There are thus fourteen tense-forms in the Eng¬ 
lish language. 

Obs. 1.— Besides the fourteen customary tense-forms which have 
been enumerated, there are other forms, which do not require sys¬ 
tematic exhibition. Such are the various modifications of the future 
tense formed with the equivalent of a Gerundive; as, lam about to 
write; I was about to write ; I have been about to write ; I had been 
about to write • had come to be • had bequn to be. etc. 

Obs. 2.—To these numerous specifications of the distinctions of 
time by the modifications of the verb the English language owes 
much of both its elegance and its precision, when it is used with 
delicacy and discrimination. But to the same cause is also due 
much of the negligence and inaccuracy displayed in its ordinary em¬ 
ployment, and much of the difficulty experienced in the acquisition 
of a thorough knowledge of its various powers. 

Obs. 3. —It is to be remembered that the simple verb has only two 
tenses, the present and the past, both indefinite; and that it has 
only four tense inflections—the present, the past or preterite, the 

J jresent participle, and the past participle; as, love , loved , loving , 
oved. The four tense-forms appear distinctly in the ancient, or 
strong, or irregular conjugation; as, breaks brake , breaking, broken. 


245. How may the tenses of the verb be arranged ? 246. How many tense-form3 
are there in English ? 



118 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


Exercises. 

Tell the Tenses of the Verbs in ihe following sentences. 

I refer the cause to you. He is dying. He will make a 
short visit. The class has been studying well. His friends 
had hoped for his recovery. I shall be travelling when the 
roses come into bloom. I did carry your message. I have 
done all in my power. You will cut yourself with that 
knife, and I shall not be sorry, as you are so obstinate. You 
will have been taught greater caution when your years equal 
mine. The gardener was pruning the grape-vines when the 
storm commenced. Your messenger had forgotten your 
message. The neighborhood has been afflicted with a se¬ 
vere epidemic this summer; the physicians have worn 
themselves down by attendance on the sick. Nothing had 
indicated the probability of such a visitation. They do wish 
to learn. The boys are skating on the pond; many of them 
have been skating there since morning, and some will be still 
skating after nightfall. I did not hear the remark. The 
quicksilver freezes. I shall throw no obstacles in your way. 
I will call on you* again. I was wishing to see you when 
you came in. 

Change the tenses of the verbs in these sentences. 


THE MOODS OF THE VERBS. 

247. Mood is that variation of the verb, in form or 
in use, which denotes the manner in which the meaning 
of the verb is presented; as, We love, we may love, if we 
love, (loving), to love . 

Obs.— In English verbs, mood, or the distinction of manner, is only- 
very rarely indicated by change of form or inflection. It was more 
conspicuously, but still very imperfectly, done in Anglo-Saxon. The 
characteristic inflections had been in great measure lost in that lan 
guage, and the process of rejection has been extended in English, 
and is still going on, as is proved by the gradual disuse of the Sub¬ 
junctive Mood. 

The moods of the verb in English are mainly distinguished by the 
relation of the verb to the sentence, not by its inflection, or by the 
employment of auxiliaries appropriated to this function. 


247. What is Mood 1 




MOODS OF THE VEEBS. 


119 




248. There are five moods, the Indicative, the Sub¬ 
junctive, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Infini¬ 
tive ; as, I love , if I love, I may or can love, love thou, to 
love. 

To these moods many grammarians add the participial 
mood, loving, loved. 

249. The Indicative Mood asserts directly, either 
in affirmation or in denial; as, I love him, I do not love 
him. 

The indicative mood is also employed in asking questions 
or interrogatively; as, Is the baby asleep ? What fear we then ? 
Do you love your parents ? 

Obs.—I n interrogative and negative sentences some changes are 
introduced by the transposition of the subject of the verb, by the 
employment of the adverb of negation, or by the use of the auxiliary 
do ; but the verb remains in the indicative mood. 

250. The Subjunctive Mood asserts indirectly, or 
under a condition, and takes a conjunction, expressed 
or implied, such as if or though , before it; as, If it rain, 
I shall not go ; Though he slay me, yet ivill I trust in Him ; 
Were I Parmenio, and not Alexander, I ivould do so. 

Obs. 1.— The subjunctive mood differs from the indicative in form, 
only by the entire absence of all inflection ; except in the verb to be, 
and in the compound subjunctives formed with this auxiliary. 

Obs. 2.— The subjunctive mood so rarely differs in form from the 
indicative, and requires such precision in its employment, that it 
has nearly gone out of use during the present century, and has been 
entirely excluded from many systems of English Grammar. But 
there is so much point and beauty in its judicious application, and it 
adds so greatly to the grace and delicacy of the English language, 
that it appears desirable to retain it as long as possible, and to re¬ 
claim it if it should ever be abandoned. Moreover, there are certain 
constructions in which it is almost equally impossible to dispense 
with this mood, or to fail to recognize it. Beware, lest evil result. 
1 must hasten, lest he arrive before my return. Those grammarians 
who reject the subjunctive in English would maintain that the aux¬ 
iliary may is suppressed in these cases. But neither the history of 
the language, nor the meaning of the construction, will justify this 
supposition. The rejection of this mood commenced early. 

Obs. 3.—In place of a conjunction before the verb, the subjunctive 
is frequently expressed by placing the subject after the auxiliary in 
conditional phrases; as, Had I loved, were he loved. So with the 
potential in the expression of a wish; as, May they fail. 


248. How many moods are there ? What are they ? What other mood has been 
proposed ? 249. What is the function of the Indicative Mood ? For what other 
purpose is the indicative employed ? 250. What is the character of the Subjunc¬ 
tive Mood f 



120 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



251. Tlie Potential Mood denotes ability, power, 
inclination, obligation to do or to become what is sig¬ 
nified by the verb; as, I may go, I can read, I should 
not rebuke him. 

Obs. 1.—The potential mood is formed entirely by means of aux¬ 
iliaries. As these auxiliaries are always in the indicative mood, if 
considered separately, many grammarians, including Lowth, Beattie, 
Grant, Webster, McCulloch, Hunter, Wells, Bain, have denied the 
existence of any potential mood in English. But, as these auxil¬ 
iaries are employed solely in the formation of combinations of this 
kind, and as such combinations express modifications of the verb 
similar to those formed in other languages by specific inflections, it 
seems judicious to recognize them as constituting a distinct and 
legitimate mood. These combinations are very early. 

Obs. 2. —The proper auxiliaries of the potential mood are, may , 
might; can, could; would; should; and must. 

To these are frequently added, ought; dare, durst; and some¬ 
times need. These verbs, however, may be more appropriately 
regarded as defective verbs, which are used after the fashion of 
auxiliaries in the formation of combinations similar to the potential 
mood. 

252. The potential mood has four tenses, the present, 
the past, the perfect, and the pluperfect; as, I may, 
can, or must love ; I might, could, ivould, should, or must 
love; I may, can, or must have loved; I might, could, 
would, should, or must have loved. 

Obs.— The perfect formed with can have is not used in affirmative 
sentences. (See Butler, Engl. Gram., p. S4, note.) 

253. The Imperative Mood expresses commands, 
entreaties, permissions, etc.; as, Go; tell me; bless us. 

The imperative mood is rarely used in modern English 
except in the second person, singular and plural; as, Go 
thou , go ye. 

Obs. 1.—The .first and third persons are still occasionally used: 
Be I your leader ; be my 'plume your guide. “ Witness the streets of 
Sodom." —Milton. For numerous examples of such forms in earlier 
English literature, see Mulligan, Struct. Engl. Lang., § 97. 

Obs. 2.—The first and third persons of the imperative are usually 
formed with the aid of the auxiliary, let: let me go, let him go. let us 
go, let them go. But the auxiliary is itself a complete imperative in 
the second person. 

Obs. 3.—In the simple English imperative, restricted to the 
second person, the pronoun is rarely expressed, unless it is employed 


251. What does the Potential Mood denote ? 252. How many, and what tenses 
k.as the potential mood 1 253. What does the Imperative Mood express ? In what 
persons is the imperath t mood used in English ? 



MOODS OF THE VERBS, 


121 


emphatically. The reason of this may he readily detected. There 
is only one person habitually signified by the imperative in this 
form, and, since the plural of the second person has been ordinarily 
employed instead of the singular, there is really only one form of the 
imperative in common use, and only one pronoun to be used. This 
pronoun may be omitted without any risk of confusion, as the em¬ 
ployment of the verb, uninflected as it is, indicates unmistakably 
its imperative character in all cases. 

254. The imperative mood has only one tense in 
English verbs—the present indefinite. 

255. The Infinitive Mood expresses the notion con¬ 
veyed by the verb in a general and indefinite manner, 
without relation to any subject; as, Boys love to play ; 
to play is pleasant; lie desired to paint his house. 

Obs. 1.—The infinitive is without any distinction of number and 
person. It is almost without any distinction of time, and hence is 
altogether indefinite, and presents the meaning of the verb without 
any of the limitations which characterize the principal parts of the 
verb. Two tenses, present and past, are assigned to the infinitive, 
but the use of these tenses is determined by the relation of the time 
of the action expressed by the infinitive to the time of the verb on 
which it is dependent. We say: I want to write , and I wanted to 
write; but, It toould have been better to have written yesterday. 

256. The infinitive readily assumes the construction 
of a noun; as, To live is to suffer. 

Here both infinitives are used substantively. 

Obs. 1.—The infinitive is used as a substantive, because it ex¬ 
presses simply the conception (or predicative signification) of the 
verb. 

Obs. 2.—The infinitive given in the conjugation of English verbs 
is not the original or true infinitive, which was not preceded by to. 
This proper infinitive is still retained after most of the auxiliaries, 
and after some oth r primitive verbs, but without the terminal in¬ 
flection ; as, Let m io ; help me do it. 

Obs. 3.—Whether to , as the sign of the modern infinitive, is to be 
regarded as a preposition, or as an inseparable particle answering 
the purpose of an inflection prefixed, is a question which has not 
been yet decided. 

257. The Participle expresses the meaning of the 
verb as a quality or attribute, after the manner of an 
adjective ; as, The lawyer continued speaking ; he showed 
me the letter already written; the councillor , learned in the 
laws. 


254. What tenses has the Imperative Mood in English ? 255. What does the In¬ 
finitive Mood express ? 256. What construction does the infinitive readily assume ? 
257. What does the Participle express ? 



122 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Where the acts of speaking , writing , and learning are as¬ 
cribed in different forms and times to the lawyer , the letter , 
and the councillor. 

Obs. 1.—The participle is so called because it participates in the 
meaning and functions of both the verb and the adjective; retaining 
the powers of the former in construction, and discharging many of 
the services of the latter. It often becomes a genuine adjective, as 
when it precedes the substantive: The learned councillor. 

Obs. 2.—The present participle active, or a word identical in form, 
and habitually identified with it, is continually used in current Eng¬ 
lish as a noun. Hence, some confusion has arisen in regard to the 
nature and characteristics of this part of the verb. 

lie is learning his lesson ; you see the boy learning his lesson ; learn 
ing is precious, but wisdom is above aU price. 

In these three sentences, there is nothing in the form to distin- 

E uish the nature and use of the w T ord learning. In the first two, 
owever, it is used participially; in the last, it is used substantively. 
These different employments proceed, in reality, from two entirely 
distinct parts of speech, which have ultimately coalesced into a 
single form. (See § 92, obs. 3.) 

258. There are three participles in the active voice, 
loving, loved, having loved, which are respectively called 
the Present, the Past, and the Perfect Participle. 

There are likewise three participles in the passive 
voice, formed by the auxiliary participles, being, been, 
and having been; as, pres., being loved ; past, been loved; 
perf., having been loved. 

Obs. —There are other combinations of the verb which have a par¬ 
ticipial signification ; as the future forms about to love, and about to 
be loved; is to do, and is to be done. (See Tooke, Div. of Purley, 
pp. 676-681). 

* 250. The participles are employed in a great variety 
of ways. They ma}^ be used to form the compound 
tenses of the verb, or as participles, as substantives, 
as adjectives, and often as infinitives. 

Examples of the use of the participles for infinitives are 
presented by such expressions as I caref ully avoided seeing 
Schiller —that is, to see Schiller. 

Do you wish him gone? —that is, to be gone or to go. 

Obs. 1.—Participles when used not as parts of the verb, but as 


258. How many participles are there in the Active Voice? What are they? 
How many participles are there in the Passive Voice ? What are they ? * 259. How 
may the participles be employed ? 




THE DIFFERENT CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 123 


other parts of speech, may retain the construction of the verb; as, 
The art of turning all things to gold. 

Obs. 2.—There is a curious construction of the present participle 
used substantively, which constitutes one of the characteristic 
idioms of the English language, and one of the most difficult to ex¬ 
plain satisfactorily. This is exhibited by such expressions as, The 
artist struck out one of his teeth , giving the appearance of Us having 
been lost by age. In consequence qf the offender's being an officer , the 
culprit was cashiered , not shot. The participle in such constructions 
is a noun substantive, dependent upon a preposition, and limited in 
application by a possessive case attached. It retains, however, all 
its verbal characteristics. The import and construction of the noun 
and participle have coalesced in the participial. There is, conse¬ 
quently, a simultaneous double use of a single word, admitting two 
separate applications. This is very frequent in the English lan¬ 
guage, and results from the process by which it has been formed. 


Exercises. 

Tell the Moods of the Verbs in the following sentences . 

Prepare your lessons. You should have been delighted. 
I would go, if I were asked. Study to be diligent. The 
boys discovered the errors which they had committed. She 
is singing. John might do better, if he were reproved. 
They inhabit a beautiful countiy. Lend me your knife to 
cut this string. Having praised him, he praised me; having 
been praised, I praised him again. He labored to quell the 
riot. The captain has been promoted. The children wish 
to be excused. War is to be lamented. They were about 
to go, when I arrived. Let the boys learn their lessons, 
without disturbing them. 


THE DIFFERENT CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 

260. Verbs, in respect to their conjugation, are di¬ 
vided into Regular and Irregular. 

261. The Regular Verbs are those which form their 
Preterite and Past Participle by the addition of ed or 
d to the Present Indicative; as, I paint, I painted, 
painted ; I move , I moved, moved . 


260. How are Verbs divided with respect to their Conjugation ? 261. What ar8 
the Regular Verbs ? When is ed used, and when is d used? What change ia 
made in verbs ending in y? 



124 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


If the verb ends in a consonant or diphthong, ed is the 
termination annexed; if it ends in e mute, d only is added, 
if it ends in y following a consonant, y is changed into i ; as, 
cry , cried , cried. 

262. The Irregular Verbs are those which form 

their preterite and past participle otherwise than by 
the addition of ed or d to the present indicative; as, 
I bring , I brought , brought. * 

Obs.—T he division of verbs into regular and irregular has relation 
to the current usage of the English language, and is not applicable 
to its earliest forms; as what are now considered regular verbs are 
variations from the primitive forms of conjugation. This variation 
had, however, begun to establish itself in Anglo-Saxon times. 

The irregular verbs are so called because they deviate from the 
customary usage of the present language in the formation of the 
parts of the verb. They aj-e of two Kinds, those which reject, con¬ 
tract, or alter the regular termination; as, cast , cast , cast; bend , bent , 
bent; and those which form the preterite by a change of the vowel 
sound of the present indicative, and sometimes by an accompanying 
change of the consonants. The former belong generally to tne class 
of regular verbs, though somewhat irregular in form. The latter 
constitute an entirely distinct class, and represent the ancient forms 
of the language, preserving the remains of the earlier speech. To 
these the name of Strong verbs, or verbs of the Strong Conjugation, 
has been given; while the others have been called Weak Verbs, or 
verbs of the Weak Conjugation. Hence, the irregular verbs are the 
oldest, the most important, and the most frequently used of the 
whole class. 

A list of the irregular verbs is given at the close of the Accidence 
of the verb. 

263. Some English verbs are defective; that is, they 
want some of the parts of the verb. 


The Defective Verbs in English are the following: 


Present. 

Preterite , or Past. 

Past Participle. 

Present. Preterite , or Past. 



beholden. 

Ought, 

ought 

Beware, 



Quoth, 

quoth. 

Can, 

c?uld. 


Shall, 

should. 

Forego, 

— 

foregone. 

Will, 

would. 

May, 

might. 


Wis, 

wist 

Must, 

must. 

— 

Wit, or wot, 

wot 

Wont — Worth —“ Woe worth the day /” 

may be added. 



Most of the defective verbs, it will be noticed, are auxiliaries. 

202. What are the Irregular Verbs ? 263. What are Defective Verbs? What 
verbs are defective ? 










THE SIMPLE CONJUGATION OF VERBS 


125 


264. Some verbs are Impersonal; that is to say, they 
have no distinctive person for their subject. Such are, 

It irketh me, it repents me, me seems. 

Such verbs are, of course, defective. They are used only 
in a manner corresponding to the use of the third person, 
and either have or have not a subject or nominative ex¬ 
pressed. 

Obs. 1.—There are probably only two kinds of impersonal verbs in 
English. 

I. With the prononn it as an indefinite or indeterminate subject; 
as, It raim, it thunders , it snows. 

This construction admits of two explanations. It maybe a reflec¬ 
tion of the name of action of the verb ; as, rain rains , snow snowst, 
lightning lightens. The term of action would thus be thrice named 
in such sentences as, It snoived a deep snow last night. 

There is another explanation which has historical testimony in 
its favor. It may be considered to refer vaguely to the unknown 
cause—the divine agency—by which such meteorological phenomena 
are supposed to be produced; as. It rains—pluit; pluit Jupiter — 
Jupiter rains , God rains. It thunders — tonat; tonat Deus—God 
thunders. 

t 

II. The only true impersonals in English are, methinks , methought: 
meseems , meseemed; metis ts, melisteth; melisted, melist. We find 
also the form him listeth. 

By sliding seas me listed them to lede.— Surrey. 

These expressions signify it seems, to me , it seemed to me ; it listeth 
to me , etc. In these impersonal verbs the objective words are in a 
genuine dative case: so in such forms as, it repenteth me,pleaseth the 
queen , etc. 

Obs. 2.—There are several other locutions in which the verb ap¬ 
pears to be used impersonally, but they do not present instances of 
true impersonal verbs, because all or nearly all verbs admit of simi¬ 
lar employment. Such examples are furnished by the substantive, 
and some other verbs, in the singular or in the plural, preceded by 
the pronoun it, or the demonstrative adverb there; as, It came to 
pass that God did tempt Abraham; there are men who would do it; 
there occurred a sudden change. 

In such cases it and thei'e refer to the nominative, or subject ex¬ 
pressed after the verb. 


THE SIMPLE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

265. English Verbs consist of two distinct formations, 
the Simple and the Compound; as, I love —simple ; 1 
have loved —compound. 

Obs.—T he simple formations proceed by the inflection of the verb 
itself; the compound formations result from the employment of 
auxiliaries. 


264. What are Impersonal Verbs ? What class do such verbs necessarily belong 
to ? 265. Of what two formations do English Verbs consist ? 



126 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


266. These distinct formations may be exhibited un¬ 
der two distinct conjugations—the Simple Conjugation, 
and the Compound Conjugation of the verb; or the two 
maybe presented together as the omplete Conjugation, 
of the verb. 

Obs.— The complete conjugation, or that which is regarded as com¬ 
plete, is usually the only conjugation presented in English Grammars. 
To illustrate more perfectly the development of the English verb, and 
the contrast between its several parts, it seems expedient to intro¬ 
duce first the simple conjugation, which displays the verb in its 
primitive and naked form ; then to give the simple conjugation of 
the auxiliary verbs, and to offer afterwards a type of the verb com¬ 
pleted in all its parts. In this manner the historical evolution of 
the verb, and the gradual growth of the language, are made ap¬ 
parent. 


267. The Simple Conjugation of the verb To love, 
proceeds as follows: 

Present. Past , or Preterite. Past Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loved. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

First Person , I love. 

Second Person , Tliou lovest.* 
Third Person , He loves, or loveth. 


PLURAL. 

We love. 

Ye, or you love. 
They love. 


Past , or Preterite , Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I loved. 

2 Pers. Thou lovedst. 

3 Pers. He loved. 


PLURAL. 

We loved. 

Ye, or you loved. 
They loved. 


• The inflectional termination est is omitted in the second person singular of the Present and 
Past of durst , and perhaps of some other irregular verbs. 


266. How may these formations be exhibited ? 267. Give the Simple Conjuga 
tion of the regular verb. To lave. 



THE SIMPLE CONJUGATION OF VERBS, 


127 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. (If) I love. 

2 Pers. (If) thou love. 

3 Pers. (If) we love. 


PLURAL. 

(If) we love. 

(If) ye, or you love. 
(If) they love. 


Past, or Preterite , Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. (If) I loved. 

2 Pers. (If) thou loved. 

3 Pers. (If) he loved. 


PLURAL. 

(If) we loved. 

(If) ye, or you loved, 
(If) they loved. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

2 Pers. Love, or love thou. 


PLURAL. 

Love, or love ye or you.* 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Past. Loved. 


Obs. 1.—These are all the simple parts of the English verb, and 
constitute the whole of its simple conjugation. All other parts of 
the verb, including the whole of the Passive Voice, are formed by 
the help of auxiliaries, and are compound forms. 

The past participle is sometimes regarded as a passive inflection, 
but improperly, as is evident from its being found in intransitive 
verbs, which have no passive voice. 

Obs. 2.—As all the other parts of the verb are formed through the 
intervention of auxiliaries, the simple conjugation of these peculiar 
verbs should precede the presentation of tlie complete conjugation 
of the verb. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb, To have. 

268. The Auxiliary Yerb, To have , is thus conjugated. 

• The Imperative Mood was formerly used in the first person ; as, Be I; love ice. But these forms 
h».vtf passed almost entirely out of use. For love ice our neighbors, the current expression is. Let 
us love our neighbors, which is a compound formation, in which let is the second person singular 
imperative of the auxiliary verb let. The same explanation is to be given of the third person, 
singular and plural, Let him love; let them love. 


268. Conjugate the Auxiliary Verb, To have. 
6 * 




128 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pers. 

I have. 

We have. 

Pers. 

Thou hast. 

Ye, or you have. 

Pers. 

He has (or hath). 

They have. 


Past, or Preterite, Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pers. 

I had. 

We had. 

Pers. 

Thou hadst. 

Ye, or you had. 

Pers. 

He had. 

They had. 


First Future 

Tense. * 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pers. 

I shall, or will have. 

We shall, or will have. 

Pers. 

Thou wilt, or shalt have. 

Ye, or you will, or shall have; 

Pers. 

He will, or shall have. 

They will, or shall have. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pers. 

(If) I have. 

(If) we have. 

Pers. 

(If) thou have. 

(If) ye, or you have. 

Pers. 

(If) he have. 

(If) they have. 


Past, or Preterite , Tense. \ 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pers. 

(If) I had. 

(If) we had. 

Pers. 

(If) thou had. 

(If) ye, or you had. 

Pers. 

(If) he had. 

(If) they had. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pers. 

Have, or have thou. 

Have, or have ye, or you. 


* The First Future Tense of have is a compound form, but it is introduced here because it il 
employed as an auxiliary in the formation of the Second Future of other verbs. 

t The form had I, etc., is used in the place of if I had, etc., in conditional sentences. 



THE SIMPLE CONJUGATION OF YEEBS, 


129 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To liaye. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Having. Past. Had. 

Note.—T he verb To have, when used as a principal verb, has the 
compound tenses and the complete conjugation which belong to 
other verbs; as, I have had, I had had , I shall have had, if I had 
had, I may have, I may have had, 1 might have , I might have had , 
etc. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb, To be. 

269. The Auxiliary Verb, To be , is thus conjugated. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I am* 

2 Pers. Tliou art. 

3 Pers. He is. 


PLURAL. 

We are. 

Ye, or you are. 
They are. 


Past, or Preterite , Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I was. 

2 Pers. Thou wast. 

3 Pers. He was. 


PLURAL. 

We were. 

Ye, or you were. 
They were. 


First Future Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I shall, or will be. 

2 Pers. Thou wilt, or shalt be. 

3 Pers. He will, or shall be. 


PLURAL. 

We shall, or will be. 

Ye, or you will, or shall be. 
They will, or shall be. 


* An old form of the Present Indicative, I be, ice be, is still sometimes found. Wert is also 
used for the 2d Pers. Sing. Pret. 

“ Thou wert the throne and grave of empires.”—Byron. 


269. Conjugate the Auxiliary Verb, To be. 



130 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. (If) I be * 

2 Pers . (If) thou be, (or beest.) f 

3 Pers. (If) he be. 


PLURAL. 

(If) we be. 

(If) ye, or you be. 
(If) they be. 


Past . or Preterite. Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. (If) I were. 

2 Pers. (If) thou wert. 

3 Pers. (If) he were. 


PLURAL. 

(If) we were. 

(If) ye, or you were. 
(If) they were. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

2 Pers. Be, or be thou. 


PLURAL. 

Be, or be ye, or you. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To be. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Present. Being. Past. Been. 

Note— The verb To be is also used as a principal verb, and then 
receives the compound tenses, etc., like other principal verbs. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliary Yerb To do. 

270. The Auxiliary Verb To do is conjugated as fol¬ 
lows. 

* The forms be J, were J, are used for the Present and Past Subjunctive in conditional sen. 
tences. 

t Beest cannot be entirely rejected. It occurs in Milton: “ If thou beest he.” 


270. Conjugate the auxiliary verb To do. 




THE SIMPLE CONJUGATION OF 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

VERBS. 131 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

Ido. 

We do. 

2 Pers. 

Thou dost, or doest 

Ye, or you do 

3 Pers. 

He does, or doth* 

Past , or Preterite , Tense. 

They do. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

I did. 

We did. 

2 Pers. 

Thou didst. 

Ye, or you did. 

3 Pers. 

He did. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

They did. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

(If) I do. 

(If) we do. 

2 Pers. 

(If) thou do. 

(If) ye, or you do. 

3 Pers. 

(If) he do. 

Past, or Preterite , Tense. 

(If) they do. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

(If) I did. 

(If) we did. 

2 Pers. 

(If) thou did. 

(If) ye, or you did. 

3 Pers. 

(If) he did. 

(If) they did. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

2 Pers. Do, or do thou. Do, or do ye, or you. 

Note.— These are all the parts of this verb which are used as aux¬ 
iliaries. The infinitive, to do , and the participles, doing and done , 
are not so employed. Do is also used as a principal verb, and then 
receives the complete conjugation. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb Shall. 
271. The Auxiliary Yerb Shall is thus conjugated : 

* The form doeth also occurs, but only when do is used as a principal verb. 


271. Conjugate the auxiliary verb Shall. 



102 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 i'trs. 

1 shall. 

We shall. 

2 Pers. 

Thou shalt. 

Ye, or you shall. 

3 Pers. 

He shall. 

They shall. 


Past, or Preterite , Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

I should. 

We should. 

2 Pers. 

Thou shouldst (shouldest). 

Ye, or you should. 

3 Pers. 

He should. 

They should. 


Note.— Shall has no other parts, and is never used now as a prin¬ 
cipal verb. It was so used in earlier times. Chancer says: “ Tho 
faith I shall (owe) to God.” 

Should belongs to the Indicative Mood, though employed as an 
auxiliary of the Potential. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb Will. 
272. The Auxiliary Verb Will is thus conjugated: 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

I will. 

We will. 

2 Pers. 

Thou wilt. 

Ye, or you will 

3 Pers. 

He will. 

They will. 


Past, or Preterite , Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

I would. 

We would. 

2 Pers. 

Thou wouldst (wouldest). 

Ye, or you would. 

3 Pers. 

He would. 

They would. 


Note.— Will, as an auxiliary, has no other forms. But there is a 
principal verb, identical in form, though differing in meaning, which 
is conjugated regularly through all its parts, will , willed , willed: 
Thou wiliest it—He wills it—They willed it so. Something of this 
original force appertains to will when used as an auxiliary in the 
first person. 

Would belongs to the indicative, though it is an auxiliary of the 
potential. 


272. Conjugate the auxiliary verb Will. 



THE SIMPLE CONJUGATION OF VERBS, 


133 


Conjugation of the Auxiliary Yerb Can. 


273. The Auxiliary Yerb Can is conjugated in the 
following manner. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I can. 

2 Pers. Thou canst. 

3 Pers. He can. 


PLURAL. 

We can. 

Ye, or you can 
They can. 


Past, or Preterite , Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I could. We could. 

2 Pers. Thou couldst (couldest). Ye, or you could. 

3 Pers. He could. They could. 


Note.— These are all the forms of the verb Can , which is never 
used as a principal verb in modern English; though it was once so 
employed, and is still so employed in some of the provincial dia¬ 
lects of England, and in Scotland under the form of ken. 

The past tense, could , like should and would, is indicative, though 
used only in forming the potential. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb May. 

274. The Auxiliary Yerb May is thus conjugated. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. PLURAL. 


1 Pers. I may. 

We may. 

2 Pers. Thou mayst. 

Ye, or you may. 

3 Pers. He may. 

They may. 

Past, or Preterite , Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I might. 

We might. 

2 Pers. Thou mightst (mightest). 

Ye, or you might. 

3 Pers. He might. 

They might. 


Note.— May is used only as an auxiliary for the formation of the 
potential mood of verbs. 


273. Conjugate the auxiliary verb Can. 274. Conjugate the auxiliary verb May. 




134 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


Conjugation of the Auxiliaey Verb Ought. 

275. The Auxiliary Verb Ought has the following 
conjugation. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I ought. 

2 Pers. Thou oughtest, or oughtst. 

3 Pers. He ought. 


We ought. 

Ye, or you ought. 
They ought. 


Note.— Ought is without any distinction of tense. It is used in¬ 
definitely to denote obligation, present, past, or future. It is not 
always included in the list of auxiliary verbs, and differs from all of 
them in requiring after it the infinitive with to , instead of the 
ancient and genuine infinitive without to ; as, He ought to do it ; he 
ought to have listened to his friends. 


276. The Auxiliary Verbs Let and Must undergo no 
change, receive no inflection, and consequently have no 
conjugation. 


Note.— Let is used as an auxiliary principally in supplying the 
first and third persons of the imperative mood; as, Let me love , let 
him love, let us love , let them love. 

Must exists only as an auxiliary, and admits no alteration of any 
kind. 

Let is used also as a principal verb, and has then the parts and 
conjugation of such verbs ; as, I let, thou lettest, he lets ; 1 have let ; 
I had let; to let, letting, let, etc. 


277. There are two other Defective Verbs, which are 
frequently included among the auxiliaries. These are 
need and dare. 


Obs.—B oth of these verbs have a double conjugation, being used 
also as principal verbs, though in a different signification from that 
which belongs to them in their auxiliary construction. 

As a principal verb, Need signifies to want, to require, to stand in 
need of, and is regularly conjugated: Need, needed , needed. 

As a principal verb, Dare signifies to challenge, to defy, and takes 
the regular conjugation: Dare, dared, dared. 

When employed after the manner of an auxiliary. Need implies 
obligation or constraint, and is usually joined with a negative: He 
need not do it, unless he like. When used affirmatively, need is gen¬ 
erally joined with must, and converted into an adverb; as, He needs 
must do it. This expression is often condemned, but without reason, 
as it is unquestionably idiomatic. 


275. Conjugate the auxiliary verb. Ought. 276. Why have the auxiliary verbs. 
Let and Must, no conjugation ? 277. What two Defective Verbs are frequently 

treated as auxiliaries ? 



THE SIMPLE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 


135 


When used like an auxiliary, Bare is an intransitive verb, and sig- 
* nifies the absence of any restraining fear: I dare undertake Ft. 
Even in this connection, it is often, not to say always, emphatic, and 
therefore entirely unlike an auxiliary. 

“ I dare do all that may become a man; 

Who dares do more, is none.”— Shakespeare. 


278. Conjugation of the Defective Verb Need. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I need. 

2 Pers. Thou need, or needst. 

3 Pers. He need, or needs. 


PLURAL. 

We need. 

Ye, or you need. 
They need. 


Note. —This verb is wholly anomalous in form, in classification, 
and in use. Where its employment approximates to that of an aux¬ 
iliary, it is better to use it equally in the present and in the past 
without any inflection, and to regard it as always a regular and 
principal verb when it is inflected. Needs is often an adverb. 


279. Conjugation of the Defective Verb Dare. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I dare. 

2 Pers. Tliou darest, dar’st. 

3 Pers. He dare, or dares. 


PLURAL. 

We dare. 

Ye, or you dare. 
They dare. 


Past, or Preterite , Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I durst. 

2 Pers. Thou durst. * 

3 Pers. He durst. 


PLURAL. 

We durst. 

Ye, or you durst. 
They durst. 


Note. —These are all the parts of the verb which can be used in 
an auxiliary manner, unless the subjunctive form, which would differ 
only in the second person singular of the present, be also capable 
of such employment. 


* So the second person singular of the past tense is usually given. The propriety of the form 
is questioned by Grant (Engl. Grammar, p. 69, note), who remarks: “Verbs being seldom used 
in the second person singular, it may be difficult to confirm by strong and decisive authority the 
inflexions of some irregular verbs; and, without this, we must not rashly forsake the common 
analogy.” The Anglo-Saxon and Layamon favor durstist. The Old and Middle English durst. 
Must has no inflection. 


278. Coujugate the defective verb Need. 279. Conjugate the defective verb 
Bare. 



136 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB- 

280. The Complete Conjugation of the Yerb embraces 
all the parts of the verb, simple and compound ; that 
is, both those parts which are formed with the principal 
verb alone, and those which are formed by joining aux¬ 
iliaries to the infinitive or participles of the principal 


verb. 


281. Complete Conjugation of the Regular Tran¬ 
sitive Yerb To love. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 


Love. 


Loved. 


Loved. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense . 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 

We love. 

Ye, or you love. 
They love. 


1 Pers. I love. 

2 Pers. Thou lovest. 

3 Pers. He loves, or loveth. 


Past Tense. 


1 Pers. I loved. 

2 Pers. Thou lovedst. 

3 Pers. He loved. 


PLURAL. 

We loved. 

Ye, or you loved. 
They loved. 


Present-Perfect Tense. —(Present Complete.) 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 

We have loved. 

Ye, or you have loved. 
They have loved. 


1 Pers. I have loved. 

2 Pers. Thou hast loved. 

3 Pers. He has loved. 





COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, 


137 



Past-Perfect Tense. —(Past Complete.) 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL* 

1 Pers. 

I had loved. 

We had loved. 

2 Pers. 

Thou hadst loved. 

Ye, or you had loved. 

3 Pers. 

He had loved. 

They had loved. 


Future Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

I shall, or will love. 

We shall, or will love. 

2 Pers. 

Thou wilt, or shalt love. 

Ye, or you will, or shall love. 

3 Pers. 

He will, or shall love. 

They will, or shall love. 


Future-Perfect Tense. —(Future Complete.) 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

I shall, or will have loved. 

We shall, or will have loved. 

2 Pers. 

Thou wilt, or shalt have loved. 

Ye, or you will, or shall have loved. 

3 Pers. 

He will, or shall have loved. 

They will, or shall have loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

(If) I love. 

(If) we love. 

2 Pers. 

(If) thou love. 

(If) ye, or you love. 

3 Pers. 

(If) he love. 

(If) they love. 


Past Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

(If) I loved. 

(If) we loved. 

2 Pers. 

(If) thou loved. 

(If) ye, or you loved. 

3 Pers. 

(If) he loved. 

(If) they loved. 


Present-Perfect Tense. —(Present Complete.) 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. 

(If) I have loved. 

(If) we have loved. 

2 Pers. 

(If) thou have loved. 

(If) ye, or you have loved. 

3 Pers. 

(If) he have loved. 

(If) they have loved. 


Note. —There does not appear to be any pluperfect of the sub¬ 
junctive. When the pluperfect occurs in conditional clauses it 
seems always to belong to the indicative, as is the case with the two 
futures. 


138 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Auxiliaries: May, can , must , ought . 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I may, or can love. We may, or can love. 

2 Pers. Thou mayst, or canst love. Ye, or you may, or can love. 

3 Pers. He may, or can love. They may, or can love. 

Past Tense. 

Auxiliaries: Might , could , would , should , must , ought. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I might, or could love. We might, or could love. 

2 Pers. Thou mightst, or co ildst love. Ye, or you might, or could love. 

3 Pers. He might, or could love. They might, or could love. 

Present-Perfect Tense .—(Present Complete.) 

Auxiliaries: May have , can have , must have , ought to have. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I may, or can have loved. We may, or can have loved. 

2 Pers. Thou mayst, or canst have loved. Ye, or you may, or can have loved. 

3 Pers. He may, or can have loved. They may, or can have loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense .—(Past Complete.) 

Auxiliaries: Might have , could have , would have , should 
have , must have , ought to have. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Per8 .1 might, or could have \ — We might, or could have 

2 Pers. Thou mightst, or couldsthave v £ Ye, or you might, or could have 

3 Pers. He might, or could have 1 P 1 They might, or could have 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. Let me love. 

2 Pers. Love, or love thou. 

3 Pers. Let him love. 


PLURAL. 

Let us love. 

Love, or love ye, or you. 
Let them love. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Present .—(Indefinite.) Perfect .—(Present Complete.) 

To love. To have loved. 


loved. 


COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF THE YEEB. 


139 


PARTICIPLES. 

Pm.— (Indefinite.) Past , or Preterite. Perfect .—(Present Complete.) 

Loving. Loved. Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

The passive voice is formed by joining the past participle 
•with the several parts, simple and compound, of the auxil¬ 
iary verb, To be. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I am loved. 

2 Pers. Thou art loved. 

3 Pers. He is loved. 


PLURAL. 

We are loved. 

Ye, or you are loved. 
They are loved. 


Past Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I was loved. 

2 Pers. Thou wast loved. 

3 Pers. He was loved. 


PLURAL. 

We were loved. 

Ye, or you were loved. 
They were loved. 


Present-Perfect Tense. —(Present Complete.) 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I have been loved. 

2 Pers. Thou hast been loved. 

3 Pers. He has been loved. 


PLURAL. 

We have been loved. 

Ye, or you have been loved. 
They have been loved. 


Past-Perfect Tense. —(Past Complete.) 


SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I had been loved. We had been loved. 

2 Pers. Thou hadst been loved. Ye, or you had been loved. 

3 Pers. He had been loved. They had been loved. 


Future Tense. 


SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I shall, or will be loved. We shall, or will be loved. 

2 Pers. Thou wilt, or shalt be loved. Ye, or you will, or shall be loved 

3 Pers. He will, or shall be loved. They will, or shall be loved 


140 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Future-Perfect Tense. —(Future Complete.) 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I shall, or will have been i — We shall, or will have been jg 

2 Pers. Thou wilt, or shalt have been l jg Ye,or you will, or shall have been V ^ 

3 Pers. He will, or shall have been ) P 1 They will, or shall have been ) P 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 


SINGULAR, 

1 Pers. (If) I be loved. 

2 Pers. (If) thou be loved. 

3 Pers. (If) he be loved. 

Past 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. (If) I were loved. 

2 Pers. (If) thou wert loved. 

3 Pers. (If) he were loved. 


PLURAL. 

(If) we be loved. 

(If) ye, or you be loved. 
(If) they be loved. 

Tense. 

PLURAL. 

(If) we were loved. 

(If) ye, or you were loved. 
(If) they were loved. 


Present-Perfect Tense. —(Present Complete.) 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. (If) I have been loved. (If) we have been loved. 

2 Pers. (If) thou have been loved. (If) ye, or you have been loved. 

3 Pers. (If) he have been loved. (If) they have been loved. 


POTENTIAL MOOD. * 


Present Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. I may, or can be loved. 

2 Pers. Thou mayst, or canst be loved. 

3 Pers. He may, or can be loved. 


PLURAL 

We may, or can be loved. 

Ye, or you may, or can be loved. 
They may, or can be loved. 


Past Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I might, or could be loved. We might, or could be loved. 

2 Pers. Thou mightst, or couldst be loved. Ye, or you might, or could be loved. 

3 Pers. He might, or could be loved. They might, or could be loved. 

Present-Perfect Tense. —(Present Complete.) 

8INGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. I may, or can have been | g 1 We may, or can have been j g* 

2 Pers. Thou mayst, or canst have been V £ Ye, or you may, or can have been > 3 

3 Pers. He may, or can have been > P* They may, or can have been ) P* 


* The auxiliaries of the potential mood in the passive voice are the same as in the corres* 
jondinv tenses of the active voice : May, might; can, could, would, should ; must, ought 




COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 


141 


1 Pers 

2 Pers 

3 Pers 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 Pers. Let me be loved. Let us be loved. 

2 Pers. Be loved, or be thou loved. Be loved, or be ye, or you loved. 

8 Pers. Let him be loved. Let them be loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present.— (Indefinite.) Perfect.— (Present Complete.) 

To be loved. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. —(Indefinite.) Past. Perfect.— (Present Complete.) 

Being loved. (Been loved ?) Having been loved. 

282. The Irregular Verbs in English are conjugated 
precisely in the same manner as the Regular Verbs. 
The only difference between the two classes consists in 
the formation of the preterites and past participles, 
except in the case of the auxiliaries and similar verbs, 
whose conjugation has been already given. 

The irregular verb To weave , has wove in the past tense, 
or preterite, and woven in the past participle; and is thus 
conjugated. 


Past-Perfect Tense .—(Past Complete.) 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

. I might, or could have j g We might, or could have 

. Thou mightst, or couldst have l - Ye, or you might, or could have l - 
. He might, or could have J g, They might, or could have J g, 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. I weave; thou weavest; he weaves, etc. 
Past Tense. I wove; thou wovest; he wove, etc. 


Conjugate in the same manner the Regular Verbs, To praise, to persuade, to 
weigh, to judge, to drown, to hate, to mix, to offer. 282. How are the Irregular 
Verbs conjugated? What are the only differences in conjugation between the 
regular and the irregular verbs ? Conjugate the irregular verbs, To weave, to begin , 
tooreak, to take, to feed, to go. 



142 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Present-Perfect Tense. I have woven ; thou hast woven, 
he has woven, etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. I had woven ; thou hadst woven ; he 
had woven, etc. 

Future Tense. I shall, or will weave; thou wilt, or shalt 
weave, etc. 

Future-Perfect Tense. I shall, or will have woven ; thou 
wilt, or shalt have woven, etc. 

And so on through all the parts of the verb. 


PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC CONJUGATIONS. 

283. Besides tlie common form of conjugation, Eng¬ 
lish Verbs are conjugated in two other modes; by the 
aid of the auxiliaries am and do, which make the Pro¬ 
gressive and Emphatic Conjugations, but only in the 
active voice. 

Obs.—T hese forms, in addition to their simple use, receive the 
modifications required for the interrogative and negative employ¬ 
ment of the verb. 

284. The Progressive Conjugation is formed by 
joining the parts of the auxiliary verb To be, to the 
present participle active of the principal verb; as, 
I am loving. 

285. The Emphatic Conjugation is formed by 
joining the parts of the auxiliary verb To do, to the 
true Infinitive Active of the principal verb; as, I do 
love. 

Note. —As the progressive and emphatic conjugations correspond 
throughout with the inflections of the auxiliaries, it is unnecessary 
to give all the parts of these forms, and it will be sufficient to pre¬ 
sent the first persons of the different tenses and moods. 

The pupil should, however, be required to give the full conjuga¬ 
tion of these forms. 


283. What two other modes of conjugation are there besides the common con¬ 
jugation? 284. How is the Progressive Conjugation formed? 285. How is the 
Emphatic Conjugation formed ? 



PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC CONJUGATIONS. 143 


286 . Progressive Conjugation of the Verb To love. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. I am loving, etc. 

Past. I was loving, etc. 

Present-Perfect. I have been loving, etc. 

Past-Perfect. I had been loving, etc. 

Future. I shall, or will be loving, etc. 

Future-Perfect. I shall, or will have been loving, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. (If) I be loving, etc. 

Past. (If) I were loving, etc. 

Present-Perfect. (If) I have been loving, etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD.* 

Present Tense. I may, or can be loving, etc. 

Past. I might, or could be loving, etc. 

Present-Perfect. I may, or can have been loving, etc. 
Past-Perfect. I might, or could have been loving, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

1 Pers. Let me be loving. 2 Pers. Be loving, or be thou loving, etc, 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be loving. Perfect. To have been loving. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present . Past. . Perfect. Having been loving. 

Note.— As the Progressive Conjugation is formed with the Active 
Participle, there is an inconsistency in supposing a Passive form. 
As it is formed with this participle and the parts of the verb To be , 
the passive form would he identical with the active. Such a form, how¬ 
ever, does apparently exist in some verbs. (See § 243, Obs. 2.) 

* There are the same auxiliaries in the Potential Mood of the Progressive Form as in the cor¬ 
responding tenses of the same mood in the common conjugation. 


286. Conjugate the verb To love, according to the progressive conjugation. 

7 





144 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


287. Emphatic Conjugation of the Yerb To love. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. I do love, etc. 

Past. I did love, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. (If) I do love, etc. 

Past. (If) I did love, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

2 Pers. Do loye, or do thou love, etc. 

Note.— There are no other parts of the Emphatic Conjugation of the 
verb. It is very doubtful whether the Past Subjunctive in tne Emphatic 
form is ever used, or can be used with propriety. 

Obs. 1.— There appears to be no passive form of the emphatic 
conjugation. 

Obs. 2.—The emphatic conjugation in the English is of singular 
advantage. 

You cannot dread an honorable death? 

I do dread it. 

“ This is one of those phraseologies which no language can fully 
express, which does not employ genuine (< auxiliary ) verbs.”— 
McCulloch, Engl. Gram., p. 72, note. 

288. These three forms of conjugation, the Common, 
the Progressive, and the Emphatic, are all of an affirm¬ 
ative character, as already given. 

But each of these forms may be used in asking questions, 
or in giving denials; that is to say, they are used interroga¬ 
tively and negatively. 

Obs. 1.—These diverse applications of the verb do not vary the 
forms of the respective conjugations, nor introduce any alterations 
into their constituent parts. They only affect the order of the parts 
among themselves, or introduce a new element among them by an 
adverb of negation, or modify them in both of these ways, when 
the verb is used both interrogatively and negatively. 

Obs. 2.—As the forms of these several conjugations are not altered, 
it is needless to repeat at length the whole of the different conju¬ 
gations for the purpose of illustrating their interrogative and nega- 


287. Repeat, or write out the emphatic conjugation of the verb To love. 
£88. What is the character of the Common, the Progressive, and the Emphatic 
Conjugations ? In what qther modes may each of these forms be employed ? 



PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC CONJUGATIONS. 145 


tive employment. It will be enough to exhibit the interrogative 
and negative forms in the first person only, and the conjugation may 
be completed in the appropriate manner by the pupil. 

The teacher should, however, go through the complete forms be¬ 
fore the class, so as to guide them in their studies. 

Obs. 3.—Each of the three forms of conjugation may be employed 
interrogatively, or negatively, or both interrogatively and negatively, 
though the tendency of the language is to prefer some forms to 
others. Thus, in asking questions the emphatic form is preferred 
to the common conjugation; as, Do Hove? rather than Love I? 

289. A verb is employed interrogatively, and takes 
the interrogative form, when it is used in asking ques¬ 
tions ; as, Will he go ? Has lie gone ? Do I see? 

290. A verb is used negatively, and takes the nega¬ 
tive form, when it is used in denying or refusing; as, 
He wiU not go, he has not gone, you shall not go. 

291. A verb is used both interrogatively and nega¬ 
tively, and takes the double form of interrogation and 
negation, when it is used in asking questions, with the 
expectation or possibility of a negative answer; as, 
Will he not go ? Has he not gone ? 

292. The indicative and potential moods can alone be 
used in asking questions, or interrogatively; as, Did 
you write ? May I see it ? 

293. All parts of the verb may be used negatively; 
as, I am not, if I he not, I may not go, do not go, not to 
know, not knowing. 

294. Only those parts of the verb can be used inter¬ 
rogatively and negatively which may be used interrog¬ 
atively—that is, the indicative and potential moods } 
as, Did I not tell you ? May I not justly conclude ? 


289. When is a verb employed interrogatively, and in the interrogative form f 
290. When is a verb used negatively, and. in the negative form ? 291. When is a 
verb used both interrogatively and negatively ? 292. What moods are alone used 
in asking questions, or interrogatively ? 293. What parts of the verb may be used 
negatively ? 294. What parts of the verb may be used both interrogatively and 
negatively ? 



146 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


295. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing 
tbe pronoun or other subject after the verb, or after the 
first auxiliary, instead of before it; as, Loves he ? Does 
he love ? 

Obs.—T he common conjugation of the verb is rarely used in the 
simple tenses (present and past indicative), except in poetry, oratory, 
and impassioned utterance. 


296. Conjugation of the Verb To love, used in¬ 
terrogatively. 


ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Present Tense. Love I ? Am I loving ? or, Do I love ? etc. 
Past Tense. Loved I ? Was I loving ? or, Did I love ? etc. 
Present-Perfect Tense. Have I loved? Have I been 
loving? etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. Had I loved ? Had I been loving ? etc. 
Future Tense. Shall I, or will I love ? Shall I, or will I 
be loving ? etc. 

Future-Perfect Tense. Shall I, or will I have loved? 
Shall I, or will I have been loving ? etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. May I, or can I love ? May I, or can I be 
loving? etc. 

Past Tense. Might I, or could I love ? Might I, or could 
I be loving ? etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. May I, or can I have loved ? May 
I, or can I have been loving ? etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. Might I, or could I have loved? 
Might I, or could I have been loving ? etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present Tense. Am I loved ? etc. 

Past Tense. Was I loved ? etc. 


295. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively ? 296. Conjugate the verb To 
love , interrogatively. 



PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC CONJUGATIONS. 147 

Present-Perfect Tense. Have I been loved ? etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. Had I been loved ? etc. 

Future Tense. Shall I, or will I be loved ? etc. 

Future-Perfect Tense. Shall I, or will I have been loved ? etc. 

297. A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the 
adverb of negation, not , after the verb in the simple 
tenses, and after the first auxiliary in the compound 
tenses ; but the adverb of negation precedes the infini¬ 
tive and the participles ; as, I love not , I do not love ; 
not to love , not loving. 

Obs.—T he emphatic conjugation is preferred to the common form 
in the simple tenses; but the use of the common form is not as 
strictly confined to poetry, oratory, and similar styles of composi¬ 
tion, as in the interrogative forms. 

298. Conjugation of the Verb To love, used 

NEGATIVELY. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. I love not, I am not loving, or I do not 
love, etc. 

Past Tense. I loved not, I was not loving, or I did not 
love, etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. I have not loved, or I have not 
been loving, etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. I had not loved, or I had not been 
loving, etc. . 

Future Tense. I shall, or will not love, or I shall, or will 
not be loving, etc. 

Future-Perfect Tense. I shall, or will not have loved, or 
I shall, or will not have been loving, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. (If) I love not, be not loving, or do not 
love, etc. 


297. How is a verb conjugated negatively? 298. Repeat, or write out the conju¬ 
gation of the verb To love , used negatively. 



148 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Past Tense. (If) I loved not, were not loving, or did not 
love, etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. (If) I have not loved, or have not 
been loving, etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 


Present Tense. I may, or cannot love, or I may, or can¬ 
not be loving, etc. 

Past Tense. I might, or could not love, or I might, or 
could not be loving, etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. I may, or cannot have loved, or I 
may, or cannot have been loving, etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. I might, or could not have loved, or I 
might, or could not have been loving, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD.. 


2 Pers. ■ 


Love not, be not loving, or do not love, etc. 

Love thou not, be not thou loving, or do not thou love, etc. 
Love not thou, be not thou loving, or do not thou love, etc. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Not to love. Perfect. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. Perfect. Not having loved. 
PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. I am not loved, etc. 

Past Tense. I was not loved, etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. I have not been loved, etc. 
Past-Perfect Tense. I had not been loved, etc. 

Future Tense. I shall, or will not be loved, etc. 
Future-Perfect Tense. I shall, or will not have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. (If) I be not loved, etc. 

Past Tense. (If) I were not loved, etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. (If) I have not been loved, etc. 




PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC CONJUGATIONS. 149 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. I may, or cannot be loved, etc. 

Past Tense. I might, or could not be loved, etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. I may, or cannot have been loved, etc. 
Past-Perfect Tense. I might, or could not have been loved, etc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Not to be loved. Perfect. Not to have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Not being loved. Past. (Not been loved ?) Per/. Not having been loved. 

299. A verb is conjugated both interrogatively and 
negatively by placing the pronoun or other nominative 
followed by not , after the verb in the simple tenses, and 
after the first auxiliary in the compound tenses; as, 
Love I not my country ? Do I not love my country ? 

Obs. The position of the negative abverb, not , before or after the 
pronoun or other nominative in sentences which are both inter¬ 
rogative and negative, is not absolutely determined; but may be 
varied as euphony or emphasis may require. 

300. Conjugation of the Verb To love, used both 

INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Present Tense. Love I not ? Am I not loving ? or, Do I not 
love? etc. 

Past Tense. Loved I not? Was I not loving? or, Did I not 
love ? etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. Have I not loved ? or, Have I not been 
loving? etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. Had I not loved ? or, Had I not been 
loving? etc. 

Future Tense. Shall, or will I not love ? or, Shall, or will I not 
be loving ? etc. 


299. How is a verb conjugated both interrogatively and negatively? 300. Con¬ 
jugate the verb To love , used both interrogatively and negatively. 



150 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Future-Perfect Tense. Shall, or will I not have loved ? or, Shall, 
or will I not have been loving ? etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. May I, or can I not love ? May I, or can I not be 
loving? etc. 

Past Tense. Might I, or could I not love ? Might I, or could I 
not be loving ? etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. May I, or can I not have loved ? May I, 
or can I not have been loving ? etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. Might I, or could I not have loved ? Might 
I, or could I not have been loving ? etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Am I not loved ? etc. 

Past Tense. Was I not loved ? etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. Have I not been loved ? etc. 

Past-Perfect Tense. Had I not been loved ? etc. 

Future Tense. Shall I, or will I not be loved ? etc. 

Future-Perfect Tense. Shall I, or will I not have been loved ? etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. May I, or can I not be loved ? etc. 

Past Tense. Might I, or could I not be loved ? etc. 

Present-Perfect Tense. May I, or can I not have been loved ? etc. 
Past-Perfect Tense. Might I, or could I not have been loved ? etc. 

Exercises. 

Conjugate, according to the Progressive and Emphatic Conjuga¬ 
tions, 

The Regular Verbs, To praise, to persuade, to weigh, to 
judge, to drown, to hate, and to offer ; 

And the Irregular Verbs, To break, to take, to slay, to feed, 
to go, and to weave. 

Conjugate the same verbs interrogatively and negatively, and both 
interrogatively and negatively. 


THE IRREGULAR VERBS, 


151 


THE IRRECULAR VERBS. 


301. The following verbs are conjugated irregularly, 
in the manner indicated. 


Note. —Those parts of the verbs which are also employed in the regular 
form are marked with the letter R. In some of these verbs the regular form 
is most common ; in others the irregular. Obsolete forms are italicized. 

Obs. —The irregularities which have been introduced into the 
language, by the affectation of particular authors, without producing 
any permanent effect, are not noticed. 


Pres. Past. Past Part. 

Abide, abode, abode. 

Am, was, been. 

Arise, arose, arisen. 

Awake, awoke, (R) j a ^^en, 

fcSvjtort* jbore.iare, bom. 

^carry, \ ,)ore > hare ' bome - 

Beat, beat, j jj*n. 

Become, became, become. 

Begin, began, begun. 

Behold, beheld, 

Bend, bent, (R) bent, (R.) 

Bereave, bereft, (R.) bereft, (R.) 

Beseech \ besou S ht > besought, 
neseecn, -j j (R.) 

Bid, bade, bid, bidden, bid. 
Bind, bound, bound. 

Bite, bit, bitten, bit. 

Bleed, bled, bled. 

Bless, blest, (R.) blest, (R.) 

Blow, blew, blown. 

Break > broken - 
Breed, bred, bred. 

Bring, • brought, brought. 

Build, built, (R.) built, (R.) 


Pres. 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast/ 

Catch, 

Chide, | 

Choose, 
Cleave, j 
to split , ( 
Cleave, ) 
to adhere , \ 
Climb, 
Cling, 
Clothe, 
Come, 
Cost, 
Creep, 
Crow, 

Cut, 

Dare, 
to venture , 
Deal, 

Big, 

Do, 

Draw, 

Drink, 

Drive, 
Dwell, 




Past. Past Part. 

burst, burst, 
bought, bought, 
cast, cast, 
caught, (R.)caught, (R.) 
chid, chidden, 
chode , chid, 
chose, chosen, 
clove, cloven, 
clave, cleft, cleft. 

clave, (R.) cleaved. 

clomb, (R.) climbed, 
clung, clung, 
clad, (R.) clad, (R.) 
came, come 
cost, cost, 
crept, crept, 
crew, (R.) crowed, 
cut, cut. 

durst, durst. 

dealt, (R.) dealt, (R. 
dug, dug. 
did, done, 
drew, drawn, 
drank, drunken, 
drunk, drunk. 

TZ:\ 

dwelt, (R.) dwelt, (R.) 


301. Give the short conjugation of the Irregular Verbs—that is, state or write 
down the Present, the Past, and the Past Participle. In oral examinations, the 
teacher should give the Present, and the pupil should give the Past Tense and 
Past Participle. 

7* 





152 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Prsa. 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Fly, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Hang, 

Have, 

Help, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

Lay, 

Lead, 

Learn, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, to rest , 
Lift, 

Light, 

Load, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Mean, 


Post 

ate, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

flew, 

forgot, 

forsook, 

froze, 

got, gat, 

gilt, (R.) 

girt, (R.) 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 

hung, (R.) 

had, 

j helped ,) 

1 holp> f 

hewed, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, | 

hurt, 

kept, 

knelt, (R.) 

knit, 

knew, 

laded, 

laid, 

led, 

learnt, (R.) 
left, 
lent, 
let, 
lay, 

lift, (R.) 

lit, (R.) 

loaded, 

lost, 

made, 

meant, 


Past Part. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forgotten. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got, gotten. 

gilt, (R.) 

girt, (R.) 

given. 

gone. 

graven, (R.) 
ground, 
grown, 
hung, (R.) 
had. 

holpen, (R.) 

hewn, (R.) 

hidden. 

hit. 

held, 

holden. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knelt, (R.) 

knit. 

known. 

laden. 

laid. 

led. 

learnt, (R.) 
left, 
lent, 
let. 

lain, lien. 
lift, (R.) 
lit, (R.) 
loaden, (R.) 
lost, 
made, 
meant. 


Pres. 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Fay, 

Pen, to 
enclose, 

Prove, 

Put, 

Quit, 

Rap, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Rot, 

Run, 

Saw, 

See, 

Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Sew, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 
j Show, 
\ Shew, 
Shred, 

Shrink, 

Strive, 

Shut, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 


met, 

mowed, 

paid, 

pent, 

proved, 


Past. Past Part 

met 

mown, (R.) 
paid. 

pent. 

j proved, 
l proven. 
put, put. 

quit, (R.) quit, (R.) 
rapped, rapt, (R.) 
read, read, 

rent, (R.) rent, (R.) 

rid i rid > 

1 a ’ ( ridden. 

rode, rid, ridden, 
rang, rung, rung, 
rose, risen, 

rove, (R.) riven. 

rotten, (R.) 


rotted, 

ran, 

sawed, 

saw, 

sought, 

sod, (R.) 

sold, 

sent, 

set, 

sewed, 
shook, 
shaped, 
sheared, 
shed, 


run. 

sawn, (R.) 
seen, 
sought, 
sodden, (R.) 
sold, 
sent 
set. 
sewn, 
shaken. 
shapen,(R.) 
shorn, (R.) 
shed. 


shone, (R.) shone, (R.) 

shod, I s * 10 ?: 

’ | shodden. 

shot, shot, 
showed, shown, 
shewed, shewn, 
shred, (R.) shred, (R.) 
j shrank, shrunken, 

1 shrunk, shrunk, 
strove, (R.) striven, (R.) 
shut, shut, 
sang, sung, sung. 

sat, sate, sat. 
slew, slain. 




THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 


153 


Pres. 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak, 

Speed, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Stave, 

Stay, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

j Strew, 
( Strow, 

Stride, 


Past. 

slept, 

slid, 


Past Part. 

slept, 
j slid. 

( slidden. 


slang,slung,slung, 
j slank, slunk, 

( slunk, slunken. 
slit, (R.) slit, (R.) 
smelt, (R.) smelt, (R.) 
smote, smitten, 
sowed, sown. 

{£&[ spoken. 

sped, sped, 
spent, spent, 
spilt, (R.) spilt, (R.) 
spun, span , spun, 
spit, spat, spit, 
split, (R.) split, 
spread, spread. 

(sprang ,) 

\ sprung, S 
stood, 
stove, (R.) 
staid, 


stole, 
stuck, 

\ stung, 

) stang. 

{ stank, 

| stunk, 
strewed, 
strowed, 
j strode, ) 
l strid, J 


sprung. 

stood, 
stove, (R.) 
staid, 
stolen, 
stuck. 

stung. 

stunk, 
stunken. 
strewn, (R.) 
strown, (R.) 

stridden. 


Pres. 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wrap, 

Wring, 

Write, 


Past. 

struck, 


Past Part. 

j struck, 
l stricken, 
strung, 
striven. 


strung, 
strove, 
j sware, ) 

] swore, J 
sweat, (R.) sweat, (R.) 
swept, 
swelled, 
j swam, ) 

( swum, f 
| swang, t 
| swung, S 
took, 
taught, 
tore, tare, 
told, 
thought, 


sworn. 


swept. 

swollen. 

swum. 


swung. 

taken, 
taught, 
torn, 
told. 

„ , thought, 
throve, (R.)thriven,(R.) 
tlirew, thrown, 
thrust, thrust, 
trod, trode, trodden, 
waxed, waxen, (R.) 

wore, worn, 
wove, woven, 
wept, wept, 
wet, (R.) wet, (R.) 
won, won. 
wound, (R.)wound. 
wrought, wrought, 
(R.) (K) 

wrapped, wrapt, (R.) 
wrung, (R.) wrung, (R.) 
I wrote, written, 

1 writ , writ. 


Obs.—U tterly irregular as the conjugation of these verbs appears to he, 
when they are arranged in an alphabetical list, they are all formed in ac¬ 
cordance with a few principles diversely applied, and may be exhibited 
under a systematic arrangement in a few distinct classes. 

I. Verbs of primitive formation, which are conjugated by changing the 
vowel sound, and sometimes the consonants of the present indicative, in 
the preterite and past participle; as, Take, took, taken; slay, slew , slain ; 
seek, sought , sought. 

Some of these verbs retain, and others have, lost, or never possessed the 
ancient participial termination in -en. 

EC. Verbs of contracted conjugation. 

The regular inflection in ed or d is either omitted altogether in some 
verbs ending in d or t— as, Burst, burst , burst ; cast , cast, cast; or, in some 
verbs ending in d, the final consonant and the inflection are contracted into 
t ; as. Build , built , built; bend , bent, bent. Some of these take the regular 
conjugation in the 2d Pers. Sing. Past; as, cast , cast, castedst. 



154 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


Some of these verbs originally belonged to the first class; as, Cast , 

kest, kest. 

III. Verbs of mixed conjugation. 

These receive inflection by changing the vowel sound of the 
present in the preterite and past participle, and by adding the regu¬ 
lar inflection in d or ed, which is afterwards absorbed into the pre¬ 
ceding syllable and sometimes contracted into t ; as, Flee, fled, fled ,* 
bereave, bereft, bereft; feel, felt, felt; dream, dreamt, dreamt. 

Many of these verbs are conjugated regularly also. In their ir¬ 
regular form they unite the characteristics of the two preceding 
classes 

To this class belong most of the auxiliary verbs ; as, Have, had , 
had; may, might; can, could; do, did, done. 

IV. Composite verbs. 

These verbs derive their parts from different originals; as, Am % 
was, been; go, went, gone. 


Part III. 


THE DERIVATION OF WORDS. 


302. Derivation is tlie third part of Etymology, and 
treats of the origin and primary signification of words. 

Obs. 1.—In every highly developed language, and especially in 
languages which have borrowed largely from other tongues, the nu¬ 
merous words of the language maybe reduced to a limited number 
of classes, each of which will include those words which are related 
to each other by a partial identity of origin, and by some corres¬ 
pondence of signification. 

“ Thus the words justice, justiciary, justify, justification, justly , 
adjust, readjust, unjust, injustice, unjustly, are all kindred words, 
connected with their common parent, just. Tn like manner, terrace , 
terraqueous, terrene, terrestrial, temer, territory, inter , disinter , 
Mediterranean, subterranean, etc., are all connected with their par¬ 
ent, terra, the earth.” (McCulloch, Engl. Gram., p. 84.) 

Obs. 2.—Haldeman is of opinion that there are not more than 300 
roots in any language, while the English language has upwards of 
■ 100,000 words. With twelve prefixes are formed 22,000 words, and 

with the single prefix un 5,600 words. With twelve suffixes are 
formed 11,600 words, and from the same number of radical elements, 
3,050. (Engl. Affixes, pp. 13-16.) 

303. Words are divided into two leading classes—• 
Primitives and Derivatives. 

304. Primitive words are those which are not de¬ 
rived from any simple word in the language; as, man , 
horse. 


302. Of what does Derivation treat ? 303. Into what two classes are word# 

divided in respect to derivation ? 304, What are Primitive words ? Give exam¬ 
ples of primitive words. 



THE DERIVATION OF WORDS. 


155 


80i$. Derivatives are words formed from primitives; 
as, goodness, goodly, from good; unjust, unjustly, adjust , 
from just. 

Obs.— “ The primitive words of a language are always few in com¬ 
parison with its derivatives.” 

306. Derivative words are either Primary or Secon¬ 
dary. 

307. Primary Derivatives are snoh as are formed 
by an internal change or modification of the word; as, 
from strike, come struck, strake, strook, streak, stroke; 
from work — wrought, wright. 

308. Secondary Derivatives are such as are made 
by some addition to the primary word; as from strike 
come striking, stricken, striker. 

309. The additions employed in forming secondary 
derivatives are called affixes. 

310. Affixes, when attached to the beginning of a 
word, are called Prefixes ; as, un in unhand, derived 
from hand. 

311. Affixes, when attached to the end of a word, are 
called Suffixes ; as, some in handsome, derived from hand. 

312. Secondary derivatives may be formed by the 
addition of both prefixes and suffixes; as, un-hand-some 
from hand. 

Obs. —Secondary derivatives may also be formed by the addition 
of more than one prefix, or of more than one suffix, or by the addi¬ 
tion of more than one of both, or by one of either, and more than 
one of the other; as from stand comes mis-under-stand and mis- 
under -stand-ing; from tangle comes dis-en-tangle and dis-en-tangle 
ment; from come are formed un-be-com-ing and un-be-com-ing-ly. 


305. What are Derivative words ? Give examples of derivative words. 306. How 
are derivative words divided ? 307. What are primary derivatives ? Mention some 
primary derivatives. 308. What are Secondary Derivatives ? Give examples of 
secondary derivatives ? 309. What are the additions employed in forming secon¬ 
dary derivatives called ? 310. What name is given to Affixes attached to the be¬ 
ginning of a word ? 311. What name is given to affixes attached to the end of a 
word ? 312. May more than one prefix or suffix be used in forming secondary de¬ 
rivatives ? 



156 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


313. Words which are borrowed from other languages 
are to be regarded as primitives in the language by 
which they are adopted, even if they are derivative or 
compound words in the language from which they are 
taken. 

Thus incontrovertible is a simple and primitive word in 
English, though it is both derivative and compound in Latin. 

314. Derivative words may belong to both the pri¬ 
mary and secondary classes; that is to say, they may 
be formed by both internal change and the addition of 
affixes. 

Thus from break comes broker ; from see comes insight. 

315. Compound words may be regarded as forming 
a subdivision of derivatives. 

Compound words are such as are formed by the union of 
two or more words having a distinct signification separately. 

Derivatives are formed by changes or affixes having no in¬ 
dependent signification in the language. Thus ship-broker 
is a compound word; but broker is a secondary derivative. 


ENGLISH PRIMITIVES. 

316. The English language derives its primitive words 
from various languages. 

Obs.—T he English language embraces words derived from Ger¬ 
man, Scandinavian, Celtic, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Italian, 
Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, Turkish, Hindoo, Malay, Chinese, and 
other tongues. 

317. The chief part of the English language is de¬ 
rived from the Anglo-Saxon; and its most important 
and fundamental words have been received from the 
Anglo-Saxon speech. 


313. How are words borrowed from other languages to be regarded ? 314. May 
derivative words be both primary and secondary? Give examples of this. 
315. How may compound words be regarded ? What are compound words ? How 
do they differ from derivatives ? 316. Whence are English Primitives derived ? 
817. Whence is the chief part of the English language derived ? 





ENGLISH PRIMARY DERIVATIVES. 


157 


318. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are termed Pure 
English; those of other origin are designated Mixed 
English. 

Sleep, dream, hat, wall, house, are pure English words. 
Mortal, derivation, generous, liberty, turban, cigar, hospital , 
wigwam, are mixed English words. 

319. Words derived from foreign languages frequently 
undergo changes to adapt them to the English tongue. 

Thus, from Lai. sermo comes sermon ; from Lat. humanus 
comes human; from French couvre-feu comes cur-few; from 
French couvre-chef comes kerchief. 


ENCLISH PRIMARY DERIVATIVES. 

320. Primary Derivatives are formed in English 
principally in four modes. 

I. By changing the vowel, or vowel sound, of the Primi¬ 
tive ; as, from bind come bond, bound; from bite comes bit, a 
piece bitten. 

II. By changing the final consonant, or consonant sound 
of the primitive; as, from stick — stitch; from dig — ditch; 
from breath — breathe. 

III. By changing both the vowels and the consonants, or 
their sounds; as, from weave — woof; from dig — dike; from 
lose — loss. 

IY. By adding a letter at the beginning; as, from melt- 
smelt ; from whirl — twirl. 

321. Several primary derivatives in English undergo 
no change, and retain exactly the form of their primi¬ 
tives ; as, from praise comes to praise ; from snow comes 


318. What are words of Anglo-Saxon origin termed? What are other words 
called ? 319. Do foreign words retain their foreign forms in English ? 320. How 
are Primary Derivatives in English formed? 321. Do all primary derivatives in 
English differ from their primitives ? 



158 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


to snow; from ice comes to ice; and from to fall comes 
fall. 

322. Primary derivatives are nearly all pure English. 

Only pure English primitives form primary derivatives by 
changing the vowels or the vowel sounds. 


ENGLISH SECONDARY DERIVATIVES. 

323. The Affixes employed in forming Secondary 
Derivatives in English are either Separable or Insep¬ 
arable. 

324. Separable affixes are those which are used as 
independent words ; such as, on, in, full, like, etc., in on¬ 
slaught, in-sight, wonderful, star-like. 

325. Inseparable affixes are those which are em¬ 
ployed only in the formation of derivative words; as, 
a in a-back, a-wake ; be in before, be-speak, be-tide. 

326. The affixes employed in the formation of Eng¬ 
lish derivatives are of various origin. 

Many are derived from the Anglo-Saxon; as, un in un¬ 
fetter; hood in child-hood. Several are from the old Norse 
and other Scandinavian tongues, but, having been adopted 
by the Anglo-Saxon, they are entitled to be considered pure 
English. A in a-board, a-gog, illustrates this class. 

More are borrowed from the Latin, and from mixed Eng¬ 
lish words; as, al in al-lot; ment in judg-ment. 

Some are derived from the Greek; as, ism in Protestant¬ 
ism , Phaiisa-ism. 

327. Saxon or English affixes are usually connected 
with pure English Primitives; as, un,some, in un-liand- 
some ; with in wilh-draw, withstand . 


322. What is the nature of nearly all primary derivatives in English ? 323. What 
two kinds of Affixes are employed in forming English Secondary Derivatives? 
324. What are Separable Affixes ? 325. What are Inseparable Affixes ? 326. What 
is the origin of the English affixes ? 327. With what words are Saxon affixes used ? 



THE PUKE ENGLISH AFFIXES. 


159 


328. Latin affixes are for the most part joined with 
words of Latin descent; as, in in in-cognizant: but they 
are often used with English words; as, able in unspeak¬ 
able. 

329. Greek affixes should be attached only to words 
derived from the Greek; and Greek words should not 
receive affixes of any other origin than Greek. 


THE PURE ENGLISH AFFIXES. 

Prefixes and Suffixes. 

330. The Pure English Affixes are few in number 
in comparison with those derived from Latin and Greek. 

331. The Pure English Prefixes scarcely reach 
twenty in number. 

They are, a in Orbed, an in an-neal, be in besiege, for m 
for-bid, fore in fore-tell, fro in fro-ward, gain in gainsay, n in 
n-ever, out in out-bid, un in un-loose, up in upset, with in 
withstand, and a few others, which are doubtful, or rarely 
used, or entirely disused. 

332. The Pure English Suffixes are much more 
numerous than the prefixes, and are not used indiffer¬ 
ently in forming different parts of speech. 

333. Nouns signifying persons are formed with the 
suffixes ar , ard , art , er, ster, yer , for the masculine; and 
ess, ster, and stress, for the feminine. 

Examples: Ar in begg-ar, ard in cow-ard, art in bragg-art, 
er in sing-er, ster in youngster, yer in law-yer —masculine; 
and ess in godd-ess, ster in spinster, stress in seamstress, (fern. 


328. With what words are Latin affixes chiefly used ? 329. To what words should 
Greek affixes be attached ? 330. Are the Pure English Affixes numerous ? 331. Are 
there many Pure English Prefixes ? What are they ? Give examples of them. 
332. Are the English Suffixes more numerous than the prefixes ? How do these 
differ in use f 333. What suffixes form nouns signifying persons ? Give instances 
of each. 



160 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Some of these terminations are also used in forming nouns 
of other genders. 

334. Abstract nouns, denoting quality, condition, 
habit, action, etc., are formed with the suffixes derm, 
ery, head, hood, ing, ledge, loch, ness, red, ship, ter, t, 
and th. 

Examples: Dora in Ghristen-dom, ery in monk-ery, head in 
God-head, hood in child-hood, ing in morning, ledge in know¬ 
ledge, lock in wed-lock, ness in dark-ness, red in hat-red, ship in 
hardship, ter in raf-ter, t in weigh-t, th in heal-th. 

335. Other nouns are formed with the suffixes d, en 
or n, er, le, m or om, ow, ric, ry, wick, and y; as, d in 
floo-d, en in maid-en, n in kil-n, er in work-er, le in hand-le, 
m or om in sea-m, hlo-om, ow in mead-ow, ric in bishop¬ 
ric, ry in found-ry, wick in baili-wick, y in soldier-y. 

336. Diminutives are formed with the suffixes d, et, 
key, kin, let, tin, ling, m, and ock. 

Examples: El in kern-el, et in pock-et, key in mon-key, kin 
in fir-kin, let in ring-let, lin in gob-lin, ling in shave-ling, m in 
fil-m, ock in hill-ock. 

337. The pure English suffixes employed in the for¬ 
mation of verbs are en, er, ish, le, ter, and y. 

Examples : En in weaken, er in ling-er, ish in bum-ish, le 
in crumb-le, ter in frit-ter, y in sull-y. 

338. Adjectives are formed with the suffixes ed, en, 
erly, ern, fold, ful, ish, less, like, ly, some, th, ty, ward, 
and y. 

As ed in wretch-ed, en in wax-en, erly in east-erly, ern in 
west-ern, fold in manifold, ful in wonderful, ish in fool-ish, 

334. How are Abstract Nouns formed ? Supply examples in each case. 335. How 
are other nouns formed ? Hlustrate these formations by examples. 336 With 
what suffixes are Diminutives formed ? Give instances. 337. What suffixes are 
employed in forming verbs ? Furnish instances of the use of each. 338. What 
suffixes are used to form adjectives ? Present examples. 



FOREIGN AFFIXES. 


161 


less in life-less, like in war-like, ly in king-ly, some in whole¬ 
some, th in four-tli, in twen-ty, ward in awk-ward, y in 
sorr-y, or ey after y, as in clay-ey. 

339. Adverbs are formed with the suffixes ce, ly, n, 
re, s, st, ther, ward or wards, and wise. 

Examples: Ce in on-ce, ly in tru-ly, n in the-n, re in the-re, 
s in besides, st in whilst, ther in hi-ther, ward or wards as in 
back-ward, back-wards, wise in like-wise. 

340. Suffixes are seldom employed in forming pro¬ 
nouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. 

FOREIGN AFFIXES. 

Prefixes and Suffixes . 

341. The affixes of foreign origin employed in form¬ 
ing English words are very numerous, especially those 
taken from the Latin. 

342. Latin Affixes are attached to pure English 
and to mixed English words, and also occur in com¬ 
pound words borrowed from the Latin; as, in-sight, 
nonsense, se-cure. 

The principal Latin affixes found in English are the fol¬ 
lowing. 

I. Prefixes: A, db, abs ; ad, a, ac, af, ag, al, an, op, ar, as, 
at; amb, an; ante, anti; dr cum, circu; con, co, cog, col, cor ; 
contra; de; dis, di; e, ex, ec, ef; in, im; in, il, im, ir; 
inter, intel; intro; ne; non; ob, o, oc, of, op ; per, pel; 
post; prce, pre; prceter, preter; re, red; retro; se; sine; 
sub, m, suc,suf,sug,sup,sus ; subter; super; supra; trans, 
tra ; ultra. 


339. What are the English suffixes used to form adverbs ? Give examples in 
each formation. 340. Are suffixes employed to form the other parts of speech ? 
341. What affixes are very numerous in English ? What class is the most nu¬ 
merous ? 342. With what words are Latin affixes joined ? 



162 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


II. Suffixes: 

In nouns denoting persons: sor in sponsor, tor in rec-to7\ 

trix in execu-trix. 

In abstract nouns, and in nouns denoting things: acy in 
fall-acy; ance or ence in mainten-ance, emin-ence; ancy or 
ency in ascend-ancy, emin-ency; ice in just-ice ; ity or ty in 
dign-ity, plen-ty; l or il in flai-l, ax-il ; ion, sion, or tion in 
reg-ion , occasion, ac-tion ; ment in monu-ment j mony in acri¬ 
mony ; or in trem-or j sure or ture in erasure, pic-ture ; 
tude in grati-tude. 

In diminutive nouns ; aster in poet-aster ; cute in ridi-cule ? 
cle in radi-cle ; ule in gldb-ule. 

In adjectives: aceous in crust-aceous ; al in reg-al / an or 
ian in sylv-an, Christ-ian; ane, ene, or ine in mund-ane, terr¬ 
ene, mar-ine; ant or ent in inf-ant, torr-ent; ar or ary in 
sol-ar, exempl-ary; ferous in somniferous; fic in terri-fic; 
ible or able in ed-ible, eat-able ; ic or ical in com-ic, com-ical; 
il or He in cvo-il, doc-ile ; ose or ous in verb-ose, odi-ous ; olent 
or ulent in vi-olent, pulver-ulent; sory or tory in delusory , 
migra-tory ; pie in sim-ple. 

In verbs : ate in vac-ate; fy in magnify ; ite in exped-ite. 

Note.—T hese suffixes are not given according to their etymologi¬ 
cal character in the Latin language, but according to their use in 
the English; thus, ion , sion , and tion are not three forms of one ter¬ 
mination, but the single termination ion , since the s and t belong in 
the Latin to the radical or primitive word. 

343. Greek Affixes are much fewer than those 
which come from the Latin. 

They are also of more recent introduction, having been 
received into the English by the adoption of Greek com¬ 
pound words, or by later imitations of such compounds in 
the formation of new words. 

344. Greek Prefixes rarely occur except in Greek 
words borrowed in their compound forms, or in techni¬ 
cal and other terms formed upon such models. 

The Greek prefixes which most commonly appear in 
English words are these: a or an, not, in a-pathy; an- 


343. Are Greek affixes as frequent as Latin ? 344. Where are Greek prefixes 
chiefly found ? 



FOREIGN AFFIXES. 


163 


archy; amphi, about, in amphi-theatre; ana, an, up, in ana¬ 
tomy ; anti, ant, against, in anti-pathy, Ant-arctic; apo, ap, 
from, in apo-cope, ap-helion; cata, cat , down, in catastrophe , 
cat-optrics; dia, di, through, in dia-meter, di-orama; en, erri, 
in, in en-caustics, em-phasis; epi, ep, upon, in epi-taph, ep¬ 
hemeral; ex, ec , out of, in ex-odus, ecstasy; hyper, over, in 
hyper-critical; hypo, hyp, under, in hypo-thenuse, hyp-hen; 
meta, met, beside, in meta-phor, met-onymy ; para, par, near 
to, in para-dox, par-ody ; peri, around, in peri-phrasis ; syn , 
sy, syl, sym, together, in syn-opsis, system, syl-logism, sym-bol. 

345. The Greek Suffixes are fewer than the Greek 
Prefixes, but they are more frequently employed in 
forming new English words. 

The Greek suffixes employed in English are the following: 
In Nouns indicating persons, ist in soph-ist; ite in Ishmael- 
ite ; ine in hero-ine. 

In Abstract Nouns, and in nouns denoting things: ad or 
id in lli-ad, AEne-id ; ic or ics in rhetor-ic, gymnast-ics; ism 
or sm in magnet-ism, spasm ; ma in panora-ma ; sis in crisis ; 
y in monarch-y. 

In Diminutives, isk in aster-isle. 

In Verbs, ize or ise in critic-ize, catech-ise. 

Note.—A djectives formed with Greek suffixes have usually been 
borrowed by the English through the Latin, and retain the Latin 
forms. 

Obs. 1.—It is unnecessary to extend this brief summary of Eng¬ 
lish derivation by adding any observations on the affixes introduced 
from the French or other foreign languages not already noticed. 

Obs. 2.—In compiling this brief abstract of the principles of Eng¬ 
lish derivation, assistance has been received from Horne Tooke, 
Latham, Smart, Fowler, Allen and Cornwall, McCulloch, Wallis, 
Richardson, Oswald, Barnes, Angus, Bain, Haldeman, Max Muller, 
Worcester, and Webster. 


845. How do Greek suffixes compare with Greek prefixes ? 





PART III. 


SYNTAX. 


SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 

346. Syntax treats of the correct employment and 
arrangement of words in sentences. 

Obs.—S yntax is concerned with the relations of words to each 
other in a sentence, and with the relations of parts of sentences to 
each other and to the whole sentence, and of sentences to each 
other. 

347. Syntax is divided into two parts. 

The first part of syntax treats of the relations of words to 
each other; or of the construction and arrangement of words. 

The second part of syntax treats of the relations of clauses 
to each other and to the sentence in which they stand, and 
of sentences to each other; or of the structure of sentences. 

348. A Sentence is a combination of words, or a 
single word, conveying a complete sense; as, Dogs 
howl; the bees make honey ; come. 

349. When a sentence consists of two or more parts, 
each part is called a Member. 

In the sentence, It was well contrived, and it was admirably 
executed, the two distinct parts, it was well contrived, and it 
was admirably executed, are called the members of the sen¬ 
tence. 


346. What does Svntax treat of? 347. Into what parts is syntax divided ? What 
does each of these parts treat of? 348. What is a Sentence ? Form different sen¬ 
tences. 349. What are the parts of a sentence called, when the sentence consists 
of two or more parts ? 







SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 


165 


850. When the members of a sentence are so related 
to each other that one of them is dependent upon the 
other, and modifies it, they are termed Clauses. 

In the sentence, Sheep run , if you frighten them; sheep 
run forms one clause, and if you frighten them forms another 
clause. 

351. A Phrase is a combination of words grammati¬ 
cally connected together, but not forming a complete 
sense by themselves. 

The speaker came up to public expectation. Game up to 
public expectation is a phrase. The words do not make a 
complete sense when they stand alone. 

352. A Proposition is a sentence containing a single 
statement ( predication ), either affirmative or negative ; 
as, It rains; it does not rain . 

353. Sentences, in respect to their meaning, or pur¬ 
port, may be divided into five classes—Declarative, Im¬ 
perative, Conditional, Interrogative, and Exclamatory. 

354. A Declarative Sentence is one that declares 
or asserts something; as, The day is warm; the sun 
warms the soil. 

Sentences are either affirmative or negative. 

An affirmative sentence affirms something to be; as, The 
sun is hot to-day. 

A negative sentence denies something, or affirms some¬ 
thing not to be; as, The sun is not hot to-day. 

Obs.—T hese two kinds of sentences are the same in grammatical 

form and construction, though directly opposed in signification. 

The addition of the negative adverb not converts an affirmative into 

a negative sentence. 


350. What are the members of a sentence termed, when they are dependent 
on each other ? 351. What is a Phrase ? 352. What is a Proposition ? 353. How 
are sentences divided with respect to their meaning ? 354. What is a Declarative 
Sentence ? Form declarative sentences. What are the two kinds of declarative 
sentences, and the nature of each ? 



166 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


355. An Imperative Sentence is one wliicli com¬ 
mands, requests, entreats, etc. 

It is characterized by the use of a verb in the imperative 
mood ; as, Gome here to me ; bring me pen, ink, and paper. 

356. A Conditional Sentence is one in which a 

condition is expressed; as, You would have acted differ¬ 
ently, if you had stopped to reflect: Had you reflected, 
you would have acted differently . 

357. An Interrogative Sentence is one employed 

in asking questions; as, Is the sun warm ? Is not the 
sun warm ? 

Obs. 1.—A question is sometimes asked without employing the 
interrogative form of the verb, by a peculiar emphasis or intonation; 
as, What / I dc it ? 

Obs. 2.—Interrogations may he either direct or indirect. They 
are direct, when a question is plainly asked; as, Did yon do it? 
They are indirect, when a question is only implied; as, I know not 
whether you did it. 

358. An Exclamatory Sentence is one which ex¬ 
presses a feeling or opinion in regard to something 
stated, or to be stated; as, Hoio wonderful is man! 
What a surprise it is ! 

Obs.—E xclamatory sentences are disconnected in construction 
from the discourse in which they occur, and may he regarded as in- 
terjectional phrases. 

359. The Subject and the Predicate of a sentence 
may be regarded as either Grammatical or Logical. 

This distinction means that reference may be made either 
to the connection and construction of the words, or to the 
connection and nature of the thoughts. 

360. The Grammatical Subject is a noun, or an 

infinitive, or some other word or phrase used as a 


355. What is an Imperative Sentence ? Give examples. 356. What is a Con¬ 
ditional Sentence ? Frame such sentences. 357. What is an Interrogative Sen 
tence? Illustrate such sentences by examples. 358. What is an Exclamatory 
Sentence? Give instances of this kind of sentence. 359. In what two ways 
may the Sqbject and the Predicate of a sentence be regarded? 360. How is the 
Grammatical Sutijdbt formed? 



SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 


107 


noun, and forming the nominative to the verb; as, His 
anger teas kindled against Israel. To succeed requires 
industry. That he should have succeeded is surprising . 

361. The Logical Subject includes the noun or 
other nominative to the verb, with all the words con¬ 
nected with it to restrict, modify, or define its accep¬ 
tation ; as, 

“ The soldiers oP the army which Amaziah sent 

BACK, THAT THEY SHOULD NOT GO WITH HIM TO BATTLE, 

fell upon the cities of Judah. ” 

362. The Grammatical Predicate is the finite verb, 
in the active or passive voice, in any of the modes of 
conjugation; as, Amaziali strengthened himself ’ their 
anger was kindled ; night is approaching. 

363. The Logical Predicate includes the finite 
verb, with the object depending on it, and with all 
other words or phrases completing or modifying the 
assertion made by the verb ; as, 

11 He HIRED A HUNDRED THOUSAND MIGHTY MEN OF VALOR 

out of Israel for a hundred talents of silver.” 

364. The subject and the finite verb constitute the 
essential and characteristic parts of a sentence. The 
object, when there is one, is dependent upon the verb. 
"With these three parts the whole frame-work of the 
sentence is constructed. 

All the other words and parts of the sentence are depend¬ 
ent either upon the sentence so formed, or upon one or other 
of these parts. 

Obs.—I n examining the construction of a sentence, accordingly, 

the first thing to be done is to discover the subject, whether noun. 


361. What does the Logical Subject include? 362. What constitutes the Gram¬ 
matical Predicate ? 363. What is embraced by the Logical Predicate ? 364. What 
are the essential parts of a sentence ? On what are all the other words or parts 
of a sentence dependent ? 



168 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


or other word or phrase used as a nonn ; then the finite verb, or word 
of predication ; then the object, if there be one. The next step ia 
to refer the other words or parts of the sentence to one or other of 
these primary constituents of the sentence, or to the whole sentence 
already formed. 

365. The subject, the predicate, and the object may 
be all modified, that is, the meaning of each may be 
restricted, extended, limited, or otherwise affected, by 
conjoining other words with them. 

The sun ripens the fruits. By modifying the subject, the 
sentence may be changed into, the unclouded sun ripens the 
fruits. 

By modifying the grammatical predicate, the sentence may 
become, the unclouded sun rapidly ripens the fruits. 

By modifying the object, the sentence may be further 
altered into, the unclouded sun rapidly ripens the grateful 
fruits. 

Further modifications, producing further alterations of 
signification, may be added. The unclouded and burning 
sun rapidly and surely ripens the grateful fruits of autumn , 
during the earlier months of the declining year , so that they 
afford refreshing pleasures to the human family. 

But all the additions which have been received by this 
sentence are dependent upon the simple sentence composed 
of three parts— the sun ripens the fruits. 

366. Those words and phrases which are employed 
to modify the meaning of the subject, the predicate, 
and the object, in the principal sentence, or in a subor¬ 
dinate clause, are termed Adjuncts. 

367. The subject, the predicate, and the object may 
each have its own adjunct. 

368. Parsing states the parts of speech to which the 
words of a sentence belong, the simple forms of the 


365. May the subject, predicate, and object be modified ? 366. What name is 
given to the words and phrases which modify the leading parts of a sentence ? 
367. What parts of a sentence may receive Adjuncts ? 36S. What is Parsing ? 



AGREEMENT, OR CONCORD. 


169 


words which are inflected, the character of their par¬ 
ticular inflections, their connection with other words 
in the sentence, and the rules which regulate such 
connection. 

Obs. —The term Parsing is very vaguely used. It is often em¬ 
ployed to indicate some one of these functions, and sometimes to 
indicate additional procedures. Parsing is properly confined to the 
explanation of the use of words in the construction of a sentence, 
and to the changes which they require to adapt them to this use. 

369. The statement of the relations of the members, 
clauses, and phrases in a sentence to each other, of 
their dependences, and of the conditions and effects 
of their connection with each other, is termed the 
Analysis of Sentences. 

Obs.— The analysis of sentences is not a branch of parsing, but a 
distinct process, which belongs to the.Theory of Composition and 
to Rhetoric, rather than to Grammar. Parsing regards exclusively 
the grammatical relations and character of words; Analysis their 
logical and rhetorical significance. 

370. Parsing is concerned with the First Part of 
Syntax, or the construction of words; Analysis, with 
the Second Part of Syntax, or the structure of sen¬ 
tences. 


Part I. 

t 

CONSTRUCTION, OR THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 

Section I. 

AGREEMENT, OR CONCORD. 

371. Rule I.—A Noun or Pronoun used as the sub¬ 
ject of a sentence is in the Nominative Case; as, He 
and she are sick ; London is an immense city . 


369. What is the Analysis of Sentences ? 370. What parts of syntax do parsing 
ar.d analysis respectively contemplate ? 371. Give the First Rule of Syntax—in 
regard to the nominative of a sentence. How are subjects expressed otherwise 
than by nouns or pronouns ? How are they construed ? 




170 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


A verb in the infinitive mood, a phrase, or a clause may 
form the subject of a sentence, and is construed as a noun 
in the nominative case. 

To learn requires industry. His being from home at 
the time of my arihval occasiojied much delay. That 

WARM CLIMATES SHOULD ACCELERATE MATURITY AND DE¬ 
CAY is very credible. 

Obs.—W hatever expression or sign names that which is spoken 
of, constitutes the suoject of the sentence, and may be treated as a 
noun in the nominative case. , 

Z is the last letter of the alphabet. An is sometimes an article and 
sometimes a prefix. Loveth is the third person singular of a verb. 
%isa mark used to denote a section. 

372. Bule II.—A verb must agree with its subject 
or nominative in number and person; as, The dog 
barhs , birds fly , I am alone. 

When the subject is singular, or denotes only a single 
thing, the verb is put in the singular number; as, The vessel 
has sailed. 

When the subject is plural, or denotes more than one 
thing, the verb is put in the plural; as, Trumpets sound. 

Verbs are never used in the first or second persons except 
with pronouns of those persons, expressed or understood; 
as, /, Julius Cmar, am writing against Cato ; Thou , David y 
art the man ; Gome , John. 

Pronouns of the third person, nouns in general, and other 
subjects require the verb to be in the third person, and are 
considered to be of the third person themselves; as, States¬ 
manship demands knowledge. 

Kelative pronouns are of the same person with the words 
to which they refer; as, I y who am the writer, know this. 
Thou , Lord , who knowest the heart , knowest mine innocence. 
The Parliament , which was in session , instantly adjourned. 

373. Bule III.—Collective Nouns require a singular 
verb when they denote the collection as a whole; but 
a plural verb when they denote the individuals of which 

372. Give the Second Rule—for the agreement of the verb with its nominative. 
Explain the application of this rule in the different numbers and persons. 
373. Give the Third Rule—about the agreement of Collective Nouns with the verb. 



AGREEMENT, OR CONCORD. 


171 


the collection is composed; as, The army is routed and 
disorganized; The clergy are debating the matter in con¬ 
vocation. 

Obs. 1.—The verb should be put in the singular or the plural ac¬ 
cording as the idea of unity or of plurality predominates. 

Obs. 2.—A plural verb is used with a singular noun employed 
idiomatically to denote a plurality of things ; as, Ninety sail were en¬ 
gaged in the battle; A hundred head of cattle were in the pasture. 

Obs. 3.—A singular verb is used with a plural noun when the con¬ 
ception impliedls single; as, The neivs was very unwelcome ; Much 
pains was taken. 

Obs. 4.—The singular or the plural form may be employed, accord¬ 
ing to the sense, in the phrase as follows—His arguments were as 
follow , or as follows. The singular verb is always found in the 
phrase, as appears. 

374. Rule IV.—Two or more nominatives in the sin¬ 
gular, connected together by the conjunction and , re¬ 
quire a plural verb, if they express more than one 
thing; as, England , Scotland , and Wales form the Island 
of Great Britain. 

But, if the nominatives form a single though compound 
conception, the verb is put in the singular; as, Bread and 
butter is very good diet. 

Obs. 1.—The verb is still put in the plural if the conjunction and 
is suppressed: as, Beauty, wealth , learning, rank, talent, virtue were 
united in him. 

Obs. 2.—When a singular nominative is enlarged by an Adjunct 
consisting of the preposition with and a dependent noun or pronoun, 
the verb is usually put in the singular, but may be put in the plural; 
as. Industry, with economy , secures success. The general, with his 
staff, are in the field. Both constructions are sustained by good 
authority. 

In either case the construction is determined by the sense : if the 
thought is single, the verb must be in the singular; if there is plu¬ 
rality in the thought, the verb should be in the plural. 

Obs. 3.—A verb coming between two nominatives, either of which 
may be the subject, may agree with either of them; as, The wages 
of sin is death. But the examples which seem to fall under this rule 
may be better explained otherwise. 

375. Rule V. — Singular nominatives connected to¬ 
gether by the conjunctions or, nor , etc., require the 
verb to be in the singular; as, Ignorance or negligence 
has caused this mistake. 


374. Give the Fourth Rule—relating to nominatives connected by and. When 
do such nominatives take a singular verb ? 375. What is the Fifth Rule—regard 
ing nominatives connected by or, nor, etc. ? 



172 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


When nominatives of different numbers are connected by 
or , nor , etc., the verb should be in the plural; as, Neither the 
captain nor the soldiers have arrived. 

Obs.—T he plural noun should be placed next the verb when prac¬ 
ticable. 

376. Rule YI.—Nouns and pronouns used to explain 
other nouns or pronouns, denoting the same persons or 
things, are put bv apposition in the same case ; as, 
Cicero, the orator, declaimed against Verres / William, 
the Conqueror, landed at Hastings. 

Obs.— When nouns in apposition are in the Possessive Case, the 
sign of the possessive is used with one of them only, and is under¬ 
stood with the rest. It is used with either the first or the last of the 
words in apposition; as, This treatise is Aristotle's , the sage , and the 
philosopher; or, This treatise is Aristotle , the sage's. 

To secure clearness of expression, it is often necessary to restrict 
the possessive sign to the first noun ; as, The treatise is Aristotle's , 
the greatest philosopher of antiquity. 

When the language is emphatic or solemn the possessive sign is 
sometimes attached to all the nouns in apposition; as, This great 
discovery is Aristotle's , the sage's , the philosopher's, the logician's , the 
critic's 

The effect of such repetition of the possessive sign is to ascribe 
the discovery to Aristotle in each of these characters. 

377. Rule YU.—Pronouns agree with the nouns for 
which they stand, or to which they refer, in gender, 
number, and person ; as, The officer has returned ; he is 
praised for his conduct: I have lost my knife ; have you 
got it, or have you got your own ? 

Obs. 1.—But the neuter pronoun it is frequently employed to 
represent a clause, or a noun or pronoun of any gender, number, 
and person; as, It is I; it was she ; it was they , who did it. It is the 
duty of the Christian to love his enemies. 

In the last sentence, it represents the clause, to love his enemies. 

Obs. 2.—The pronoun and the noun represented by it should not 
be used as nominatives to the same verb, unless when a strong em¬ 
phasis is required. It is incorrect to say, The house it is torn down ; 
but there is peculiar vigor and elegance in the expression, The Lord , 
He is God. 

378. Rule YIII.—The Demonstrative Pronouns this 
and that agree in number with the nouns with which 


37fi Repeat the Sixth Rule—for nouns and pronouns in apposition. 377. State 
the Seventh Rule—about the agreement of nouns and pronouns. 378. What is the 
Eighth Rule—in respect to Demonstrative Pronouns ? 



AGREEMENT, OR CONCORD. 


173 


they are joined, or to which they refer; as, These are 
my hooks , those are yours: These hooks are mine, those 
hooks are yours. 

379. Rule IX. —The Relative Pronouns agree with 
their antecedents in gender, number, and person; as, 
The man , who carried your message , brought hack the 
cloak; 1 , who am injured , ivillforgive. 

Obs. 1.—The Relative who is used only in regard to persons, but 
that is used for both persons and things. 

Obs. 2 .—When the antecedent is a collective noun specially im¬ 
plying a single idea, though signifying persons, which is used in 
preference to who ; as, The extreme party, which possessed great in¬ 
fluence, was guilty of many excesses. 

Obs. 3.—The relative should be placed as near as possible to its 
antecedent, to prevent uncertainty of reference; as, Sailors who 
had just been paid off, were frequently plundered by highwaymen ; 
instead of, Sailors were frequently plundered by highwaymen , who 
had just been paid off. 

380. Rule X. —When a question is asked by means 
of an interrogative pronoun, the noun or pronoun in 
the answer must be in the same case as the interroga¬ 
tive ; as, Whose house is that ? It is the governor's. 

Obs.—T he interrogative who is used only for persons; but which 
for both persons and things. 

381. Rule XI. —The Articles relate to the nouns 
which they limit; as, A her, an ant, the queen , the sol¬ 
diers ; a great work , the best spirit; a university; an 
umbrella. 


Obs. 1.—If two or more nouns or adjectives are applied to one 
person or thing, the article is used with the first only; as, Hooker 
was a good and learned man : but if they refer to different persons 
or things, the article should be repeated with each; as, The Tory 
Pitt, and the Whig Fox. 

Obs. 2.—The meaning of a sentence may be changed by the intro¬ 
duction or by the omission of the indefinite article; as, The general 
had a few soldiers with him; The general had few soldiers with him. 

Obs. 3.—The indefinite article is used before nouns in the plural 


379. Give the Ninth Rule—how do Relative Pronouns agree with their antece¬ 
dents? 380. State the Tenth Rule—in regard to the case which replies to a ques¬ 
tion. 381. Mention the Eleventh Rule—in regard to the employment of the 
articles. 




1174 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


succeeded by the adjectives few, great many, hundred, thousand\ 
etc.; as, A great many strangers were in town. 

The explanation of this usage is, that the words few, many, hun¬ 
dred , etc., are used as Collective Nouns in the singular. 

Obs. 4.—The indefinite article is used after such, many, what, and 
after all adjectives with a singular noun preceded by too, so, as, how. 
The Definite Article is used after all; as. Such a man as he was; 
Many a man has done the same thing; He gave me all the money he 
had; It was too hazardous a thing to attempt. 

Obs. 5.—The indefinite article is used before a Comparative fol¬ 
lowed by than; the definite article before a comparative followed by 
of; as, He is a wiser man than his brother; He is the wiser of the 
favo. 

The definite article is also used before the comparative, when the 
comparison is not between different persons or things, but between 
different conditions of the same person or thing; as, He was the 
wiser for his misfortunes; The greater the evil, the more prompt should 
be the remedy. 

Obs. 5.—In comparisons the omission of the indefinite article be¬ 
fore the second noun restricts both nouns to the same subject; the 
introduction of the article makes a comparison between two sub¬ 
jects ; as, William is a better writer than reader, which means that 
William writes better than he reads: but, William is a better writer 
than a reader, would mean that William writes better than a reader 
writes. 

382. Rule XII.—Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and 
participles limit or qualify nouns or pronouns ; as, A 

gentle disposition is a great attraction; The discussion ivas 
earnest; Seizing his hat , he rushed from the house. 

' Obs. 1.—The adjective may express either an attribute of a noun, 
as, He is a good man ; or may form part of the predicate and ascribe 
a quality to the noun ; as, The man is good. 

Obs. 2.—When the adjective forms part of the predicate, it some¬ 
times relates to a noun implied in the verb, and not to any noun 
separately expressed or understood ; as. The new-mown hay smells 
sweet. This does not mean simply that the hay is sweet, but that it 
has a sweet smell, the noun smeU, being implied in the verb smells. 
The sentence differs slightly in signification from The new-mown 
hay smells sweetly. 

383. Rule XIII.—A noun or pronoun joined with a 
participle, and not dependent upon any other word in 
the sentence, is put in the nominative case, which is 
called the Nominative Absolute ; as, The storm being 
violent , the admiral's ship ivas separated from the fleet. 

Obs.—T he nominative was not originally the absolute case in 
English.— Latham. 

384. Rule XIY.—A noun or pronoun in the nomina- 


382. Give the Twelfth Rule—for the relation of adjectives to nouns. 383. Give 
the Thirteenth Rule—relative to the Case Absolute. 384. What is the Fourteenth 
Rule—on the connection of the nominative with a finite verb ? 



CONSTRUCTION OF DEPENDENT WORDS. 175 

tive case must always be connected with a finite verb, 
unless it be a nominative absolute, or be used as a term 
of address ; as, 0 ye hypocrites , ye can discern the face 
qf the shy ! 

Obs .— Ye hypocrites is used without a finite verb, and these words 
are usually construed as nominatives of address. In reality, they are 
vocative cases, or cases of calling, although identical in form with 
the nominative. 


Exercises. 

Correct the following expressions, and give the rules for the 
correct constructions. 

We was in the country yesterday. You was mistaken. 
Before thou begins, consider whether thou can perform. 
Most animals, except man, keeps to one kind of food. Herbs 
is the food of one species, and flesh are the food of another. 
No thanks is due for compulsory favors. The army are in 
camp, but a regiment are on outpost duty. The mob is 
fighting among themselves. The news are very unfavor¬ 
able. To reproach a person for past offences are very un¬ 
gracious. Virtue and vice has different effects. Brandy and 
water are often prescribed for health. To scorn or to hate 
him are equally unwise. Neither the master nor the servant 
were to be found. No man’s punishment should be greater 
than their crime. These are the bay horses of the man 
whom he was looking for. Whose image and superscrip¬ 
tion are this ? Caesar. The carpenter is here of which I 
spoke. Their long travelling in warm climates were inju¬ 
rious to their health. 

Section II. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF DEPENDENT WORDS (OR 
GOVERNMENT). 

385. Rule XV. — Transitive verbs in the active voice 


385. State the Fifteenth Rule—about the transitive verb and its object. 



176 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


require a noun or pronoun after them in the objective 
case, to complete the predicate; as, She told me that 
you struck her. 

Obs. 1.— A transitive verb forms an incomplete predication by 
itself, and, in order to complete the predication, requires an object 
after it, which may be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive, or a clause. 
In Cain killed , the proposition is incomplete, and is not completed 
till it is stated whom or what he killed. The object killed, the 
objective case of the noun signifying what was killed, is required to 
complete the statement. The sentence is completed when it is said 
Cain killed Abel. 

Obs. 2.—Many verbs are used both transitively and intransitively ; 
as, He lamented hisfriends ; he lamented for his friends. 

Obs. 3. —An intransitive verb becomes transitive, when it is used 
in a causative sense, that is, to signify that the act denoted by the 
verb is made to be performed by something ; as, He walked his horse 
round the race-covrse. 

The verb, in this use, represents a function which is in some 
verbs discharged by an internal change of the word, or by primary 
derivation ; as, A man falls down a precipice, but he fells an ox or an, 
oak. 

B86. Rule XYI.—Intransitive verbs may take after 
them a noun in the objective case to signify the same 
thing substantively which is included in the significa¬ 
tion of the verb; as, I dreamt a dream which was not 
all a dream. 

Obs. 1.— The noun in the objective case need not be the exact 
equivalent, or the substantive expression, of the action denoted by 
the verb, but any noun which signifies what is virtually implied in 
the verb; as, He has run his career. 

Obs. 2.— Intransitive verbs are often rendered transitive by the 
addition of a preposition; as, They laughed him to scorn. Here the 
preposition, besides taking a noun in the objective case after it, has 
the effect also of rendering the verb transitive. 

The more common form of this usage is presented by such ex¬ 
pressions as, Fortune smiled on his efforts. 

The ordinary mode of explaining these constructions is to consider 
them as examples of an objective case dependent upon a preposition. 
But, as the verb with the preposition admits a passive voice, which, 
without the preposition, it does not, it is better in most cases to 
regard the preposition as entering into composition with the verb 
which it follows. (See § 142.) 

387. Rule XYII.—A verb in the infinitive mood, a 
participle used as a noun, a phrase, or a clause may 
take the place of a noun as the object of a transitive 


386. Give the Sixteenth Rule—for Intransitive Verbs with an object. 387 Give 
the Seventeenth Rule—for the expression of an object otherwise than by a noun. 




CONSTRUCTION OF DEPENDENT WORDS. 


177 


verb; as, The boys love to play, the girls love to study; 
The fear of the Lord shoivs the beginning of wisdom; 
The Bible teaches that God is love. 

Obs. —An infinitive denoting purpose is used to extend the predi¬ 
cate after some verbs, both transitive and intransitive; as, He came 
to see me; He reads to acquire knowledge. 

In this employment, the infinitive does not take the place of a 
noun in the objective case, but represents the purpose of an action. 
He came for the purpose of seeing me. He I’eads for the purpose of 
acquiring knowledge. 

In other languages a preposition is usually employed to express 
this modification of the predicate. In vulgar and provincial English 
the preposition for is still so employed. It was habitually used in 
the earlier stages of the language. What went ye out, for to see f 

388. Rule XYIII.—Verbs which signify ashing , giv¬ 
ing, telling, teaching, paying, etc., take two objective 
cases after them, one for the direct, and one for the 
indirect or remote object; as, Priscian taught him 
grammar ; His father gave Henry a watch. 

Obs. 1 —The verbs which are formed with this construction are 
ask. bring, buy , do, draw, deny, find, f urnish, get, give, hand, leave, 
lend, make, offer, order, pass, pay, play, iiour, present, promise, pro¬ 
vide, refuse, sell, send , sing, show, teach, tell, throw, write. 

But some other verbs admit the like construction; as, Saddle me a 
horse. 

Obs. 2.—The noun or pronoun representing the indirect object 
should be placed next to the verb, and before the direct object. 

Obs. 8.—The verbs appoint, call, consider, constitute, create, esteem, 
make, name, reckon, regard, render, style, think, and some others, 
take after them a direct object, of which they predicate something 
by a noun which is also in the objective case; as, They made him 
Captain • The King appointed Lord Eldon Chancellor ; His enemies 
thought him either a knave or a fool. 

This construction is not an instance of apposition, but of ellipse 
or suppression, the infinitive to be or a preposition being omitted. 

Obs. 4.— The verb repent is sometimes followed by an objective 
case ; as, They repented them of the evil. 

This expression has been condemned, but unnecessarily. To re¬ 
pent one's self is one of the few remnants of the reflexive verb in 
English. 

389. Rule XIX.—Verbs, which in the active voice 
take two objective cases after them, retain an objective 
case for the direct object in the passive, and convert 
the indirect object of the active into the nominative of 


388. What is the Eighteenth Rule—in regard to verbs followed by two objective 
cases ? 389. Repeat the Nineteenth Rule—relating to the passive of verbs which 
take two objectives. 



178 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


tli© passive verb; as, I asked him a question—he was 
asked a question by me ; Priscian taught him grammar — 
he was taught grammar by Priscian. 

Obs. 1.—The forms, a question was asked him. grammar was 
taught him , if not positively ungrammatical, as they are often de¬ 
clared to be, are certainly colloquial, and ought to be avoided in 
written compositions. 

But with verbs of giving both forms are used ; though a knife was 
given him is more common and more authorized than Tie was given a 
knife. 

Obs. 2.—Some verbs, which take a secondary objective in the 
active voice, do not admit an objective case in the passive. We say, 
Saddle me a horse, but we cannot say, 1 was saddled a horse , nor a 
horse was saddled me. 

390. Rule XX.—The verbs to be , to become , and most 
intransitive and passive verbs, take the same case after 
them as before them ; as, Nathan said unto David , Thou 
art the man ; The French allowed Louis Napoleon to be¬ 
come their Emperor. 

Obs. 1.—In these constructions, the noun or pronoun after the 
verb designates the same thing as the noun or pronoun before the 
verb, and the words put in the same case are in some sort of apposi¬ 
tion to each other. 

Obs. 2.—In such a sentence as, he was chosen Emperor , the noun 
Emperor is usually represented to be the nominative after the passive 
verb, corresponding in case with the subject of the verb; but it 
w'ould seem better to regard it as an objective case, in accordance 
with the principles exhibited in §§ 388, 389. 

As it is only a noun which can occupy this position, the form of 
expression is not affected by any difference of interpretation in 
regard to the case of the noun. 

Obs. 3.—The following verbs are those which take the same case 
after them as before them : To appear. be. become , come. commence , 
continue , die. expire , go. grow, last , lie. live , reign, remain, return , 
seem. sit. stand, turn, wander; as, He turned patriot; The Parthenon 
stands a ruin; Sidney lived the Shepherd's friend. 

These verbs are called Apposition Verbs, in consequence of their 
employment with this construction. 


Exercises. 

Correct the following expressions , and give the rules for the correct 
forms. Complete the imperfect sentences. 

My uncle took my cousin and I to tlie picture gallery. 
He and they we know. We, seeking flowers in the wood 

390. State the Twentieth Rule—in regard to intransitive and passive verbs. 



CONSTRUCTION OF DEPENDENT WORDS. 


179 


-. They, returning home-the horse. The children 

got into mischief, them being absent. Her haying finished 
her lessons, all were allowed to play. The little boys told 

she about their sports. His friend offered him-. It was 

not us who did it. We thought it to be she, but became 
convinced that it was not her. It was him who was in the 
wrong, and it was me who tried to restrain him. 


391. Rule XXI.—A noun or a pronoun joined to 
another noun, to signify some attribute or quality, or 
to denote possession, is put in the possessive case; as, 
The kings army, the soldier's sword, the hoy whose mother 
is dead. 


Obs. 1.—The noun in the possessive case precedes the noun which 
it limits, and on which it depends. 

Obs. 2.—The possessive noun may often be expressed by the noun 
in the objective after the preposition of: as, The army of the king ; 
The sword of the soldier. 

Obs. 3.—When two or more nouns in the possessive case are con¬ 
nected together, and relate to one noun, the sign of the possessive is 
added to the last only, if the noun to which they relate appertains to 
them jointly or together; as, Lucian and Lucy's wedding takes place 
to-morrow; You may find the book at John Smith the bookseller's 
shop. 

But, if the noun to which they relate appertains to them severally 
or separately, the possessive sign must he used with each of them ; 
as, The King's and the Parliament's forces encountered each other at 
Naseby. 

392. Rule XXII.—Tlie present participle may be 
used as a verbal noun after the possessive case, or may 
be qualified by the possessive pronouns; as, There is 
no instance of a man's accomplishing such a feat; In con¬ 
sequence of his being an officer, he teas only cashiered for 
the offence. 

Obs. 1.—This construction has been condemned by Bishop Lowth, 
Gould Brown, Gibbs, etc. It is sustained by Campbell, Grant, 
James, Mulligan, and many others. It is admitted by all to be cur¬ 
rent, and is frequent in the best authors. 

Constructions of this character are among the most anomalous 
and obscure in the English language. They have arisen from the 
identification of the vex-bal noun with the participle in -ing. (§ 92, 
obs. 3.) 


391. Repeat the Twenty-first Rule—on the use of the possessive case. 392. Give 
the Twenty-second Rule—relating to the use of possessives with the participle. 






180 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


The participle assumes a substantive character and construction, 
while retaining the capacity which belongs to verbs of taking nouns, 
and other adjuncts, after them. They are thus used simultaneously 
as nouns and verbs, or are employed as nouns with the properties 
of verbs. 

Obs. 2. —The participle, when used as a noun, may be itself put in 
the possessive case ; as, His being's end and aim. He teas perplexed 
by the writing's obscurity. Such forms are often objectionable, with¬ 
out being ungrammatical. 

Obs. 3.— The participle, used as a noun, may take either of the 
articles before it, and may take a prepositional clause after it; as, 
The sailing of ships in winter is dangerous; Covetousness is a wor¬ 
shipping of idols. 

But, if no article is prefixed, the preposition should not be intro¬ 
duced. Thus, it should be, Covetousness is worshipping idols , not 
worshipping of idols. 

393. Rule XXIII.—The noun, which is limited by 
the word in the possessive case, is often unexpressed; 
as, St. Peter s (church) at Rome is the finest structure in 
the world; That hook is one of my brother's (books). 

Obs. 1.—The construction illustrated by the first example is ap¬ 
propriate only when the noun suppressed is so familiar in connection 
. with the possessive word, as to present itself instantaneously to the 
mind in connection with the latter. 

Obs. 2.—The construction illustrated by the second example can 
be used only when the noun suppressed is suggested by its previous 
employment, or by the context. 

394. Rule XXIY.—Nouns and pronouns dependent 
upon prepositions are in the objective case; as, The 

'plague raged in London in the reign of Charles II. 

London , reign, and Charles are in the objective case. 

Obs. 1.— An objective case follows some adjectives and adverbs ; 
as, She is like her mother ; The prize is worth an effort; Stars nigh 
hand seemed other worlds. 

Obs. 2 .— Than is sometimes used as a preposition after adjectives 
in the comparative. It is then followed by an objective case ; as, He 
was reading Pascal , a more profound writer than whom never wrote. 

This construction is exceedingly inelegant and objectionable. It 
is the only form in which the use of than as a preposition is still re 
tained, and it should be permitted to become obsolete. 

395. Rule XXY.—Nouns expressing limitations of 
time, space, value, or measure, are put in the objective 
case without a preposition ; as, He walks five miles every 
day ; a child six years old ; a tower two hundred feet high. 


393. What is the Twenty-third Rule—for the suppression of the noun qualified 
by the possessive ? 394. Give the Twenty-fourth Rule—for the dependence of 
nouns on prepositions. 395. State the Twenty-fifth Rule—determining the case 
of nouns of price, measure, etc. 



CONSTRUCTION OF DEPENDENT WORDS. 


181 


Miles, day, years, and feet are in the objective case. 

Obs. 1.—After words denoting price , cost, etc., the indefinite, and, 
more rarely, the definite article, is employed in this construction; 
as. Flour is eighteen dollars a barrel; This silk is three dollars a 
yard; English calicoes are fifty cents the yard. 

Obs. 2.—Several explanations of this construction have been of¬ 
fered. None are entirely satisfactory, or equally applicable to all 
cases. The most common interpretation is to refer these objectives 
to a preposition understood ; hut nouns are similarly used in other 
languages without a preposition, and were so used in Anglo-Saxon. 

In some instances, the former use of a preposition may he recog¬ 
nized, especially in the statement of price, but this cannot always 
be done; as, “ire nowmbre of fyve thousandis." — Wycliffe: S. John, 
c. vi. They charge ten dollars per hundred weight , or by the hundred 
weight , or for the hundred weight. 

But the occurrence of two analogous forms does not necessarily 
prove that the one has grown out of the other. 


396. Rule XXYI. —The infinitive follows, and is de¬ 
pendent upon a verb, an adjective, or a noun; as, 1 
wish to undertake a journey ; his relations are anxious to 
help him; the desire to succeed in well-doing is praise - 



Obs. 1.—The infinitive mood is employed to extend either the sub¬ 
ject or the predicate of a sentence. 

Obs. 2.—The infinitive, without the sign of the infinitive to, fol¬ 
lows the active voice of the verbs behold , bid , can , dare (intransitive), 
feel , hear, help, know, let , make, may, need, observe, perceive, see, shall, 
will: as, I saw the sun rise. 

Obs. 3.—The tense of the infinitive is determined by the relation 
which its time bears to the time signified by the finite verb on which 
it depends. 

I was happy to see him, means that my happiness was coincident 
with seeing him. 

I was happy to have seen him , means that I am glad now for having 
seen him previously. 

Obs. 4.—In some phrases, and with some verbs, the active and the 
passive infinitive may be used in nearly the same sense; thus, 1 
have a Iwuse to sell , or to be sold; I have a house to let, or to be let. 

In the active voice reference is made to the agent, the seller, or 
the letter; in the passive form, the reference is to the thing to be 
sold or to be let. So, in the phrases, This was a thing to commend, 
or to be commended , the former expression refers to the eulogist—the 
latter, to the thing eulogized. 


397. Rule XXYII. —The infinitive and the participle 
are often used absolutely, or without being dependent 
upon any other word in the sentence ; as, To be candid 


396. State the Twenty-sixth Rule — for the construction of the infinitive. 
397. Recite the Twenty-seventh Rule—in regard to the infinitive and the participle 
used absolutely. 




182 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


with you , I think that you are wrong; Taking that for 
granted , we may proceed to the main question . 

398. Rule XXYIII.—The imperative is often used 
in an indeterminate manner, without any distinct nomi¬ 
native ; as, Send me some corn , say ten bushels . 

Exercises. 

Give the Rules for the construction of the dependent words in the 
following sentences. 

Man’s life is brief, and man’s hopes are vain. Much de¬ 
pends upon John’s conducting himself with prudence. 
They attended the services at St. Paul’s. Take these flowers 
to her. The garden wall is ten feet high and two hundred 
feet long. The mischief has been caused by your losing 
your temper. His income amounts to four thousand dollars 
a year. Coal is ten dollars the ton. You should teach 
children to pronounce their words distinctly. To say 
nothing more, his procedure was very singular. Attend to 
this matter soon, suppose to-morrow. Admitting all you 
say, the proposition is not proved. There was great re¬ 
joicing on his recovering his estate. Hannibal’s wintering 
at Capua was his min. 

Section III. 

THE CONNECTION OF WORDS, CLAUSES, ETC. 

399. Rule XXIX.—Conjunctions connect together 
words, parts of sentences, and sentences. 

400. Rule XXX.—Nouns and pronouns connected by 
a conjunction must be in the same case; as, Night and 

398. What is the Twenty-eighth Rule—relative to the imperative indeterminate ? 

399. What is the Twenty-ninth Rule—in regard to the use of Conjunctions? 

400. What is the Thirtieth Rule—in regard to the cases of nouns joined by a cm- 
junction ? 




CONNECTION OF WORDS, CLAUSES, ETC. 183 


day succeed each other. The opportunity was presented 
to him , or her , or me. 

Obs. 1.—Conjunctions frequently connect together verbs in the 
same tense and mood; as, He understands Latin well, but still con¬ 
tinues to study it. This, however, is not due to the syntax of the 
conjunction, for verbs in different moods and tenses may be equally 
joined together by conjunctions; as, England is now peopled by the 
English, but it was once peopled by the Celts, and may belong to a dif¬ 
ferent race at some future time. 

Obs. 2. —The conjunction than couples like cases; as, 1 love you 
better than him —that is, than I love him. It was no other than he who 
did it. 

Obs. 3.—The conjunction as, when employed to denote equiva¬ 
lence, is followed by the nominative case with a finite verb under¬ 
stood ; as, The one is as good as the other (is). 

Obs. 4.—The conjunctions and and or are frequently omitted; as, 
I came, I saw, I conquered. 

Faint, weary, sore, emboiled, grieved, burnt, 

With heat, toil, wounds, arms, smart, and inward fire.— Spenser. 

Obs. 5.—Words importing relation, such as Relatives, and some 
Adverbs and Prepositions, have the effect of conjunctions; as, It 
remains where you left it; “ Before the cock crow, thou, shalt deny me 
thrice .” 

*401. IiuLE XXXI.—Conjunctions which connect to¬ 
gether the principal and dependent clauses of a con¬ 
ditional sentence, require the verbs which follow them 
to be in the Indicative Mood, when a belief in the oc¬ 
currence of the condition is implied; and the Subjunc¬ 
tive Mood, when doubt or denial is intended to be 
expressed. 

If she is sincere (as I believe her to be), I shall he happy. 

If she he sincere (which I doubt), I shall he happy. 

Obs. 1.—The indicative mood is employed after a conjunction ex¬ 
pressing contingency or supposition, when the presumption is in 
favor of the conditional proposition, or when the fact is believed to 
be certain. 

The subjunctive mood should be employed when the presumption 
is against the conditional proposition, or when it is believed that 
the condition will not happen. 

Obs. 2.—Sometimes the conjunction is omitted, and the nomina¬ 
tive placed after the verb in the subjunctive; as, Were I Alexander, 
I would do it; Were 1 not Alexan der, I would do it. 

To the speakers it was manifestly impossible that Parmenio should 
be Alexander, or that Alexander should be Parmenio, or not Alex¬ 
ander. 

Obs. 3.—The general principle seems to be, that w r hen the state- 


* 401. Repeat the Thirty-first Rule—for the employment of the subjunctive mood. 



J 84 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


ment only is hypothetical, the indicative should be used; wnen both 
the statement and the condition stated are presented as uncertain, 
the subjunctive is the proper mood. This principle, however, is 
liable to some apparent exceptions. Shakespeare says: 

If it were done , when ’tis done, then ’twere well 
It were done quickly. 

But the use and the repetition of the subjunctive here indicates the 
irresolution and uncertainty of Macbeth. 

Obs. 4.—The potential mood and the subjunctive mood of the 
verb to be are used in the principal clause, when the condition is 
future and uncertain, or when the condition is intended to be de¬ 
nied, if referring to what is past; as, It were well, if all were well 
over ; If 1 go, 1 may meet you ; If he were here (as he is not), 1 would 
ask him. 

402. Rule XXXII.—Verbs connected together by 
conjunctions, or conjunctive words, must be put in 
tenses corresponding with the times to be expressed ; as, 

I say that I will go —if I am able, or if I can. 

I said that I would go —if I were able, or if I could. 

I said that I would have gone —if I had been able, or if I 
could have done so. 

403. Rule XXXIII. — The conjunction that is fre¬ 
quently used at the beginning of a sentence for the 
purpose of introducing a substantive clause as the 
nominative to the verb ; as, That he should have ne¬ 
glected to do it, is surprising indeed. 

Obs. 1.—Horne Tooke is right in referring the use of that as a con¬ 
junction to its signification as a demonstrative pronoun; but its 
origin does not prevent it from being now unmistakably employed 
as a conjunction. » 

404. Rule XXXIV.—Adverbs, and not adjectives, 
should be used to qualify verbs and adjectives and 
other adverbs ; as, The lecturer spoke well, not spoke 
good. It is excessively wrong, not excessive wrong. He 
spoke exceedingly well, not exceeding well. 

Obs. —It has been observed already that an adjective may be used 
instead of an adverb to extend the predicate, when the substantive 
idea implied in the verb is intended to be qualified, rather than the 
verb itself; as, The fire burns bright , where the character of the 
burning, rather than its action, is qualified. 


402. What is the Thirty-second Rule—relating to tenses connected together ? 
400. What is the Thirty-third rule—for the use of the conjunction that with a sub¬ 
stantive clause ? 404. What is the Thirty-fourth Rule— in regard to the employ¬ 
ment of adverbs ? 



CONNECTION OF WORDS, CLAUSES, ETC. 


185 


405. Rule XXXV. — Two negatives in the same 
proposition make an affirmation, and are, therefore, 
improper when a distinctly negative sense is to be con* 
veyed. 

It is wrong to say, You must not do it , by no means ; but 
it is proper to say, It was not dishonest , meaning that it was 
honest. 

Obs.— When two negatives are improperly introduced, they com¬ 
pletely neutralize each other, and destroy the meaning intended to 
he conveyed; as, I will never not do it , signifies, if it has any mean¬ 
ing at all, I will never abstain from doing it, or I will do it al¬ 
ways. 

But when two negatives are appropriately employed, they convey 
an affirmation, and modify it. It was not dishonest, denies the im¬ 
putation of dishonesty, hut scarcely asserts the fact that it was 
honest. Nor did she not perceive him , means that she did perceive 
him, but acted as if she did not. 

Many delicate shades of affirmation, from the lightest insinuation 
to the most positive assertion, may be expressed through the inter¬ 
vention of a double negation. 

406. Rule XXXVI. — Adverbs sometimes qualify 
phrases or propositions, or are used as interjections; 
thus, “ Right against the eastern gate.” He ivent, cer¬ 
tainly , hut it was too late. Honor hath no shill in surgery 
then ? No. Away, ye gay landscapes. 

Obs.— The adverbs of affirmation and negation, yes, certainly , 
assuredly , no, not so, used in answering questions, constitute or 
stand for whole sentences. They are enabled to do so, because they 
qualify the sentences by which the questions are asked. 

407. Rule XXXVII.—Interjections and interjectional 
phrases are construed separately by themselves; as, 
Alas ! poor Yorick ! Ah ! me miserable ! Woe’s me ! 

Obs.—A nominative or an objective case frequently follows the 
interjection, and is dependent upon it. 

An emotion may have an object, an aim, or an exciting cause. 
This may be the aim of the address, in which case the nominative 
(vocative) case is used; as, Oh! John, look here; or it may be the 
indirect object of the feeling, when the objective (dative) case is 
employed; as, Ah me! 


405. State the Thirty-fifth Rule—for the effect of two negatives. 406. Give the 
Thirty-sixth Rule—relative to adverbs with phrases, propositions, etc. 407. What 
is the Thirty-seventh Rule—in regard to interjections ? 



186 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Exercises. 

Point out the Adverbs, Conjunctions , and Interjections in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences , and give the Rules for their construction. 

They fought gallantly, though they were overpowered. 
The boy was so agitated that he could not speak. They in¬ 
vited my sisters, and her, and me. John and I went to fish. 
That a man should forget his duty is not surprising, when 
he so often forgets his God. Oh ! the folly and the iniquity 
of man! Certainly, he ought to keep his promise. Still, 
the vessel was not submerged. * I will not let thee go, un¬ 
less thou bless me. * If my judgment is correct, you will 
succeed. * If my judgment be correct, you may succeed. 
That you have wronged me, doth appear in this. She per¬ 
formed remarkably well. I will tell him, if I have an 
opportunity. I would have told him, if I had had the op¬ 
portunity. Many men believe nothing but what they see or 
feel. My teacher commends me when I do well. I much 
desire to go, but I cheerfully regard my mother’s wishes and 
stay. Mary would have had her lesson prepared, if she had 
not procrastinated. Oh! how deeply I regret my folly 1 
My visit at my uncle’s was a very pleasant one, but I am 
glad to be back again in my dear father’s house. 

* Section IY. 

IHE ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 

408. There are two modes of arranging the words in 
a sentence — the ordinary, and the rhetorical mode. 

Obs.—T he ordinary arrangement is employed to express the mean 
in<? simply, and in accordance with the habitual usage of the lan¬ 
guage. The rhetorical arrangement deviates from the customary 
order for the purpose of producing specific rhetorical effects, by ren- 
dering certain elements of the sentence prominent and emphatic. 

Babylon is fallen— exhibits the ordinary arrangement. 

Fallen is Babylon , that great city—exhibits the rhetorical arrange¬ 
ment. 


408. What arc the two modes of arranging words in a sentence ? 



ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 187 


The employment of the rhetorical for the ordinary arrangement is 
called inversion. The consideration of the details and effects of 
inversion belongs rather to a treatise on Rhetoric than to an Ele¬ 
mentary Grammar. 

The following Rules and Observations apply to the ordinary ar¬ 
rangement only—unless it be stated otherwise. 

409. Rule I. —The subject or nominative precedes 
the verb to which it belongs; as, 

The merchants were alarmed at the intelligence. 

Cato was vanquished, hut he was unsubdued. 

Exceptions: 1.— The subject or nominative follows the 
verb in interrogative sentences, unless the question is asked 
by an interrogative pronoun; as, Is he sick? Why stand ye 
there idle ? Who goes there ? 

2. The subject or nominative follows the verb in the imper¬ 
ative mood; as, Sound ye the loud timbrel. 

3. The subject or nominative follows the verb in conditional 
clauses, when the conjunction is suppressed; as, Were it 
possible, it should be attempted. Had I your opportunities, I 
would make better use of them. 

4. The subject or nominative often follows the verb when 
the proposition is introduced by the adverbs there, here, 
hence, then, neither, nor, how, and in similar constructions; 
as, There was much water in that place ; Hence comes it, that 
we remain ignorant. 

Obs.—W hen the nominative does not precede the verb, in any of 
its compound forms, it is placed between the auxiliary and the 
verb, as in the expression of a wish, of an interrogation, or of a con¬ 
dition ; as, May your shadow never grow less: may you live a thou¬ 
sand years. Does wealth insure contentment? Had I known your 
desires, I would have gratified them. 

410. Rule II.—The object follows the verb on which 
it depends, except when the object is expressed by a 
relative or interrogative pronoun, or is joined with an 
interrogative or relative adjective; as, 

Alexander conquered Darius, and overthrew the Persian 


409. What is the First Rule of arrangement—in regard to the Nominative? 
What are the exceptions to the first rule—in Interrogative—in Imperative sen¬ 
tences—in Conditional Clauses—after some Adverbs ? 410. What is the Second 
Rule—relating to the position of the object ? 



188 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Empire ; This is the man whom the king deligliteth to honor ; 
Whom went ye out to see ? Whatsoever things I have told you , 
these do; What crimes have those unfortunate men committed? 

411. Rule III.—Nouns in the possessive case are 
always placed before the nouns on which they depend; 
as, 

The sun's light is much more powerful than the moon's rays. 

412. Rule IY.—Adjectives immediately precede the 
nouns which they qualify; as, 

The bright sunshine ; A broad river. 

To this rule there are several exceptions. 

The adjective follows the noun when the former is em¬ 
ployed, not as an attribute, but as a designation or title ; as, 
George the Third; Frederick the Great. 

When two or more adjectives relate to the same noun, 
they are frequently put after it; as, He was a man of a tem¬ 
per , gentle , amiable , and sincere. 

When the adjective is united with other words which 
complete, direct, or limit its meaning, it follows the noun; 
as, A composition worthy of all praise. 

Obs. —Relatives should be placed as near their antecedents as 
possible; as, The person , to whom a book was dedicated , was ex¬ 
pected to reward its author. 

413. Rule Y.—The infinitive follows the verb or 
other word on which it depends, but it may be sepa¬ 
rated from it by intervening words; as, 

The day began to dawn ; It was a sight beautiful to behold ; 
The garrison sallied forth with resolution and energy to drive 
back the besiegers. 

Obs.— When the infinitive is used as the subject or as the object 
of a verb, it is used substantively, and its position is regulated by 
the rules applicable to substantives in such constructions. 


411. What is the Third Rule—for the place of the Possessive Case? 412. What 
Is the Fourth Rule—relating to Adjectives? What are the exceptions to the 
fourth rule—when the adjective is a designation or title—when two or more ad¬ 
jectives relate to the 6ame Noun ? 413. Wnat is the Fifth Rule—stating the po¬ 
sition of the infinitive ? 



ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 189 


414. Rule VI.—Adverbs should be placed in close 
connection with the words which they qualify; as, 

He erred very frequently in exceedingly simple affairs. 

This seems to be the only general rule that can be given 
in regard to the position of adverbs. If carefully applied, 
it includes nearly all the specific rules that have been pre¬ 
sented on the subject. 

Some of these special prescriptions may, however, be 
judiciously introduced. 

1. Adverbs are generally placed before adjectives, after 
verbs, and between the auxiliary and the verb in the com¬ 
pound forms of conjugation. 

2. When there is only one adverb and one auxiliary, the 
adverb comes between the auxiliary and the verb. 

3. If there be two auxiliaries, the adverb is placed between 
them—though it often follows both in the passive voice. 

4. If there be three auxiliaries, which can occur only in the 
passive, the adverb follows all three. 

5. If there be two auxiliaries and two adverbs, one adverb 
follows the first auxiliary, and the other adverb follows the 
second. 

6. An adverb should never be intruded between the sign of 
the infinitive and the verb. Such expressions as the follow¬ 
ing are always wrong: He promised to severely reprimand 
him for his offence. 

7. Not follows, and should not precede the verb (or the aux¬ 
iliary) which it qualifies ; as, 1 do not offend , or I offend not; 
She does not deny , or she denies not. 

8. Never precedes a single verb; but often follows the verb 
to be ; as, She never told her love ; The boy was never at his 
books. 

9. Enough is always placed after the adjective, or other word 
which it qualifies; as, His speech was brilliant enough. 

10. The position of “ only? “ merely,” “ simply f and similar 
adverbs, must be carefully attended to, or the meaning of 
the sentence will be entirely changed from that which if 
designed; as, 


414. What is the Sixth Rule—determining the place of adverbsf 



190 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


“ I only am left to tell you;" that is, I and no one besides 
• — (but only is here an adjective). 

“ I am left only to tell you that is for this, and for no 
other purpose. 

“ I am left to tell you onlythat is, to tell no one else. 

(Harrison, Struct. Engl. Lang.) 

Obs.—N early all of these special rales will he observed by rigor¬ 
ously attaching the adverb to the word or words which it limits. 
The position of not , never, enough , is determined by idiomatic usage, 
but these are the chief cases not embraced by the general principle. 

415. Rule VII. —Adverbs qualifying a whole sen¬ 
tence, or used emphatically, or in interjectional sen¬ 
tences, may be placed at the commencement of the 
sentence; as, 

Unfortunately, the season of action had passed; Verily , 
verily, I say unto you ; How glorious is the splendor of the 
starry heavens ! 

Obs. 1.—These cases may be referred to rhetorical arrangement. 

Obs. 2.—Some adverbs, as, however , merely , etc., qualifying a 
whole proposition, may be introduced at any convenient place 
among the opening words. 

416. Rule VIII. — The preposition is generally 
placed immediately before the noun which forms its 
object; as, Here are the waters of Letlie , in which oblivion 
is found. 


Obs.—B ut the preposition often seems to be separated from its 
object, and to be placed after it, in accordance with idiomatic 
usage ; as, Such conduct I cannot account for ; These are pleasures 
which the young delight in. 

This position of the preposition has been already explained by 
considering it to be connected with the verb, and to require to be 
construed m connection with it.' 

417. Rule IX.—The position of conjunctions varies 
according as they connect words, clauses, or sentences. 


415. What is the Seventh Rule—for adverbs qualifying whole sentences, etc. 
416. What is the Eighth Rule—for the place of Prepositions ? 417. What is the 
Ninth Rule—in regard to the position of Conjunctions? What are the special 
rules for placing conjunctions—when single conjunctions connect words only— 
when they connect clauses—when monosyllabic and other conjunctions connect 
sentences ? 



ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 


191 


Single conjunctions, which connect words only, must be 
placed between the words which they connect. But, when 
correlative conjunctions are employed, one is placed before 
each of the parts of the sentence so connected; as, Flowers 
are bright, and beautiful, and sweet , but perishable; Either 
John or James must go. 

Conjunctions which connect clauses must be placed at the 
commencement of the clauses; as, Though he slay me, yet wil\ 
I trust in him. 

Monosyllabic conjunctions, which connect sentences are 
generally placed at the beginning of the second or other 
sentences connected, with the exception of the conjunction 
then. 

But conjunctions of more than one syllable, with the ex¬ 
ception of whereas, may follow the first word or words of 
the second or other sentences connected. 

Then usually avoids the first place; whereas always 
retains it. 


* Part If. 


ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 


418. In studying the structure of sentences, the logi¬ 
cal relations of words must be attended to as well as 
the grammatical. 

Obs. —This means that the investigation of the mode in which 
sentences are formed requires the examination of the reciprocal de¬ 
pendence of the thoughts upon each other, and not simply of the 
forms and positions assigned to the words themselves in conse¬ 
quence of their grammatical connection. 

419. Every Declaratory Sentence consists logically of 
three essential parts, and no more—the Subject, the 
Copula, and the Predicate; as, The sun is shining. 

Here, the sun is the subject; is forms the copula; and 


418. What must be considered in studying the structure of sentences ? 419. Of 
what parts does every Declaratory Sentence logically consist ? 

9 



192 


ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 


shining is the predicate. This sentence is nearly equivalent 
to the expression, The sun shines. 

Obs. —When the predicate consists of the verb simply, it may al- 
ways be resolved into the logical copula and the participle oi the 

The logical copula is always, and can only be, some part of the 
substantive verb to be. 

420. Sentences are of three kinds, Simple, Complex, 
or Compound. 

421. A Simple Sentence is one which contains a 
single statement, with or without extension of the sub¬ 
ject and predicate; as, 

Alexander conquered. Alexander was victorious. Alex- 
ander the Great rapidly conquered all Asia west of the Eu¬ 
phrates. 

Obs.—A simple sentence may be otherwise defined as one consist- 
ing of a single subject and a single predicate—and, still more briefly, 
as one containing a single Finite Verb. 

422. The subject or the predicate of a sentence may 
be extended in various ways. 

The following is a striking example of an enlarged sub¬ 
ject: 

“ Born to inherit the most illustrious monarchy in the world , 
and early united to the object of her choice, the amiable princess , 
happy in herself \ and joyful in her future prospects (subj.), 
little anticipated her fate.” 

The predicate may be extended in even more ways than 
the subject 

Obs —The various modes of enlarging the subject and the predi¬ 
cate, with the differences in the form and import of the sentences 
severally thus produced, are discussed in wrnrks specially devoted to 
the structure of the English tongue—and in many recent Grammars 
composed after the German type. As a general outline of the struc¬ 
ture of English sentences is only contemplated here, the details 
which belong to these topics are omitted. 

423. The Complex Sentence consists of two or 


420. What are the three kinds of sentences? 421. What is a Simple Sentence! 

422. May the subject or the predicate be extended in more ways than one 

423. Of what does a Complex Sentence consist ? 



ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 193 


more propositions, on one of which the rest are de¬ 
pendent ; as, You ivill succeed , if you do right. 

Here are two statements, propositions, or sentences— You 
will succeed, and you do right. The latter is dependent in 
construction upon the former; and both the connection and 
the dependence are expressed by the employment of the 
conjunction if. 

Obs.—T he rule may he otherwise expressed: A complex sentence 
consists of one principal subject and one principal predicate, but 
contains two or more finite verbs. • 

424. The proposition or sentence in a complex sen¬ 
tence on which the rest are dependent, is called the 
Principal Clause, or Sentence. The propositions, or 
sentences which depend upon the principal clause, are 
.called Subordinate Clauses, or Sentences. 

In the example given in the last section, you will succeed 
is the principal sentence; and if you do right is the subor¬ 
dinate sentence, or clause. 

Obs. 1.—The subordinate sentence may come first without chang¬ 
ing the relation of the sentences to each other, though more empha¬ 
sis is probably attached to the clause which takes precedence. We 
may say, “ If you do right , you will succeed ,” as well as, “ You will 
succeed, if you do right.” In the former case, most stress is laid 
upon the condition, and some doubt is implied of your doing right. 
In the latter case, attention is directed to the principal proposition, 
and the condition is thrown somewhat into the shade. 

Obs. 2.—In many cases either clause may be made the principal, 
when the other will become the subordinate: thus, 

She has on the same dress that she wore at the ball. 

She wore at the ball the same dress that she has on. 

It will be observed that there is not an exact identity of meaning 
between these two sentences; but they illustrate the facility of in¬ 
terchange between the parts of a complex sentence, in many in¬ 
stances. 

425. Subordinate sentences may be divided into three 
kinds, the Noun-Sentence, the Adjective-Sentence, and 
the Adverbial-Sentence. 

These designations are given to the several kinds of sub¬ 
ordinate sentences, to signify the functions which they re¬ 
spectively discharge in the complex sentence. 


424. What are the clauses of a complex sentence called ? 425. How may sub¬ 
ordinate sentences be divided ? 



194 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


The noun-sentence takes the place of a noun in the sen¬ 
tence ; the adjective-sentence takes the place of an adjective; 
and the adverbial-sentence takes the place of an adverb. 

“ Duty requires that we should succor the wretched” is an 
. example of a complex sentence with a noun-sentence as its 
subordinate clause. 

“We found him in the house that he formerly occupied” 
illustrates the adjective-sentence. 

“ The horse ran away when we reached the bridge,” is a 
complex sentence formed with an adverbial-sentence as the 
subordinate proposition. 

Obs.— In each class of subordinate sentences there are many va¬ 
rieties, which can be pointed out and explained only by an elaborate 
and lengthened discussion. The fullest, and in many respects the 
most satisfactory treatment of this subject is to be found in Mulli¬ 
gan’s Structure of the English Language. Briefer, but satisfactory 
expositions are given in Morell’s Grammar and Analysis, in Angus’s 
Hand-book of the English Language, in Crane’s Principles of Lan¬ 
guage, in Gibbs’s Philological Studies, in Greene’s Elements of Eng¬ 
lish Grammar, and in many other works. 

This whole investigation, however, appears to belong more appro¬ 
priately to the theory of composition than to technical Grammar. 
It should, therefore, be considered as a part of Rhetoric, or as intro¬ 
ductory to that art. 

426. A Compound Sentence is one in winch two or 
more distinct statements are joined together in one 
sentence. 

These statements are independent of each other, and are 
formed into a single sentence by the employment of con¬ 
junctions, or equivalent words. 

The simple sentences Man proposes — God disposes , are 
united into a single compound sentence by introducing the 
conjunction and; thus, Man proposes and God disposes. 

Penury, and famine, and pestilence prevailed; but, never¬ 
theless , the wa/rwent on, and was prosecuted with even increased 
fury and resolution. 

Here there are several statements: Penury prevailed; 
Famine prevailed; Pestilence prevailed; The war went on; 
The war was prosecuted with even increased fury and resolu¬ 
tion. 

These statements are all grammatically independent of 


426. What is a Compound Sentence ? 



ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 


195 


each other. They may be made in separate simple sen¬ 
tences. They are, in consequence, termed co-ordinate sen¬ 
tences or propositions. They are conjoined in one com¬ 
pound sentence by the use of the conjunctions and and but. 

Hence proceeds the definition which is often given: “ A 
compound sentence is one which contains two or more 
principal sentences or assertions co-ordinate with each 
other.” 

Obs.—I n compound sentences, the connecting words are frequent¬ 
ly omitted. 

They form, unite , charge , waver—all is lost. —Byron. 

The finite verbs and adjectives, or attributive phrases and objective 
terms, are also expressed only once, and are not repeated, but are 
understood with the other words to which they relate ; as. The air 
expands and becomes less dense by heat —for, The air expands by heat 
and the air becomes less dense by heat. 

Sentences In which certain parts are thus dropped are called 
contracted compound sentences, and the expression is said to be 
elliptical. 

427. Compound sentences are divided into different 
classes, according to the nature of the connection of 
their members, and the character of the conjunctive 
words by which the parts are united. 

They are copulative compound sentences when framed 
with such conjunctive words as and, also, likewise, moreover, 
furthermore , etc. 

They are disjunctive compound sentences when formed 
with the connectives either — or, neither — nor, otherwise, etc. 

They are adversative compound sentences when the parts 
are joined together by such words as but, yet, still, neverthe¬ 
less, etc. ♦ 

They are illative compound sentences when linked to¬ 
gether with words indicating inference, such as, for, there¬ 
fore, hence, consequently, etc. 

Many other divisions or subdivisions of compound sen¬ 
tences have been proposed, but their introduction here 
would necessitate unprofitable minuteness. 


427. How are Compound Sentences divided ? What are the principal classes ? 
What are Copulative Compound sentences? What are Disjunctive Compound 
sentences? What are Adversative Compound sentences? What are Illative 
Compound sentences ? 



196 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


Obs. 1.— Two or more of these classes may be combined in a sin¬ 
gle compound sentence; thus, He visited Paris , and then went to 
Milan , but he did not go to Venice: nor did he reach Florence or 
Home; therefore , he was deprived of the opportunity of studying the 
principal monuments of Italian art. 

In this sentence all the four classes of composition are combined. 
The first two propositions constitute a copulative compound sen¬ 
tence, if taken by themselves. The addition of the third proposition 
introduces an adversative member. The fourth proposition adds a 
disjunctive, and the fifth an illative member. 

Obs. 2.—The same sentence may be both complex and compound. 

428. In parsing complex and compound sentences, 
the several clauses or members should be first distin¬ 
guished, and the connective words pointed out. The 
separate propositions should then be parsed in the 
same manner as simple sentences. 

Obs.—I n parsing contracted sentences the ellipses, or words omit¬ 
ted, should be supplied, and then the grammatical relations of all the 
words may be readily declared. 


Example of the Analysis of a Complex Sentence . 

11 It is a proud and honorable distinction to be able to say 
that we belong to the only nation that has never been con¬ 
quered.” 

a. It is a proud and honorable distinc-) „ . . 

^ Principal sentence. 

Conjunction introducing the 

object. 

Subordinate noun-sentence 
forming the object of say. 

Relative clause. Subordinate 
adjective-sentence qualifying 
nation. 

The propositions a , b, and c may now be separately 
parsed. 


Example of the Analysis of a Compound Sentence. 

“Bourdaloue is indeed a great reasoner, and inculcates 
his doctrines with much zeal, piety, and earnestness, but his 
style is verbose; he is disagreeably full of quotations from 


tion to be able to say, 
that 

b. we belong to the only nation 
e. that has never been conquered. 


428. How should we proceed in parsing complex and compound sentences ? 



ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 197 

the Fathers, and lie wants imagination.”—(Example cited 
from Morell.) 

<,^.? 0Urdal0U ° 18 indeeClagleatrea ‘l Palpal sentence, co-ordi- 
8° nei > \ nate with b, c, d, e. 

an< ^ Copulative Conjunction. 

b. (.Bourdaloue) inculcates his doc-) Princ Bent __ with _ _ 
trines with much zeal, ( and) piety, and \ Bourdaloue—and— ellipses sup- 

OQ l*n oatn non 1 pJJg^J r * 

Adversative conjunction. 
Princ. sent, co- with b ,—but 
adversative to a, b. 

Copulative Conj. (ellipse 
supplied.) 

Princ. sent, co- with c,—ad- 
vers. to a, b. 

Copulative Conjunction. 

e. he wants imagination. i Princ. sent, co- with c t d,— 

° / adverse to a, b. 

The propositions a, b, c , d, e may now he treated as sim¬ 
ple sentences. 

(For simple modes of Analysis, see p. 220.) 

Exercises. 

Distinguish the Simple , Complex , and Compound Sentences in the 
following examples : distribute the Complex and Compound Sen¬ 
tences into their several clauses or members—and parse the sen¬ 
tences. 


earnestness, 

but 

c. his style is verbose; 

(and) 

d. he is disagreeably full of quota¬ 
tions from the Fathers, 

and 


Extreme care to avoid censure never answers its purpose. 

Towards the west lies the fertile shore that stretches along 
the Adriatic. 

There are many injuries which almost every man feels, 
though he may not complain of them. 

Where’er we tread, ’tis haunted, holy ground. 

The castle was very large, but there were few appliances 
for comfort. 

Eveiy man has at times in his mind the ideal of what he 
should be, but is not. 

Procrastination is the thief of time. 

Paul, the Apostle, wrote the Epistle to the Romans, and 
denounced pagan vices. 


198 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Because slie has loved much, therefore much has been 
forgiven her. 

I weep the more because I weep in vain. 

Flowers form one of the first delights of early age, and 
have proved a source of instructive recreation to the most 
profound philosophers. 

It is excellent 

To have a giant’s strength; but it is tyrannous 
To use it as a giant. 

The downfall of Bonaparte is an impressive lesson to am¬ 
bition, and affords a striking illustration of the inevitable 
tendency of that passion to bring to ruin the power and the 
greatness which it seeks so madly to increase. 

We know that we have made no discoveries, and we think 
that no discoveries are to be made, in morality; nor many 
in the great principles of government, nor in the ideas of 
liberty, which were understood long before we were born, 
altogether as well as they will be after the grave has heaped 
its mould upon our presumption, and the silent tomb shall 
have imposed its law on our pert loquacity. 

Who for the spangles wears the funeral pall! 

But catch a gleam beyond it, and ’tis bliss. 

No really great man ever thought himself so. 

The proper force of words lies not in the words them¬ 
selves, but in their application. 

Wherever the forms of reasoning appropriate only to the 
natural world are applied to spiritual realities, it may be 
truly said, that the more strictly logical the reasoning is in 
all its parts, the more irrational it is as a whole. 

These few examples may suffice as an exercise on the different 
kinds of sentences. The more intricate forms of composition have 
been excluded—as their consideration should be postponed till the 
student is prepared to enter into the philosophical study of language, 
and its application in Rhetoric. If further practice is desired, the 

g reat authors of the English Tongue furnish the best parsing 
ooks. For simple sentences recourse may be had to Hume, Lamb, 
and Hazlitt; for complex sentences, to Shakespeare, Milton, Burke, 
Coleridge; for compound sentences, to Byron, Shelley, Jeffrey, Ma¬ 
caulay. But any series of English Reading Books will furnish texts 
of progressively increasing difficulty, and may be employed as con¬ 
venient manuals. 



PART IV. 

PROSODY. 


429. Prosody, in its widest acceptation, includes 
everything connected with the music or melody of 
language. 

In its ordinary and restricted signification, prosody desig¬ 
nates that part of grammar which treats only of the prin¬ 
ciples of versification. But, in its larger and more philo¬ 
sophic sense, prosody embraces orthoepy, or the correct 
pronunciation of words ; punctuation, or the distinction of 
the parts of a sentence, and of meanings, by pauses in the 
utterance; accent, emphasis, rhythm, metre, and the combi¬ 
nation of metres in the different forms of verse, for the 
purpose of adapting the melody of language to the senti¬ 
ment expressed. 

Punctuation indicates the various inflections of meaning; 
the grammatical relations of the several clauses of a sen¬ 
tence ; and the separation of sentences from each other, by 
the introduction of pauses of different duration. In perfect 
composition these pauses should correspond with the re¬ 
quirements of melodious utterance, with the successive 
modifications of the meaning, and with the grammatical 
structure of sentences. The sense and the structure of the 
sentence or sentences should agree, and the sound and the 
intermissions of sound should furnish an echo to the sense. 


429. What does Prosody include ? 







200 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


(Sentences should be so constructed as not to require the 
marks of punctuation to indicate either their construction 
or then* meaning; and this is a rule of law in regard to the 
interpretation of legal documents and legislative enact¬ 
ments. But the marks of punctuation employed should 
always accord with the pauses required in the utterance 
of sentences, to insure a pleasing and melodious effect. 
Hence, although punctuation is usually applied only to 
indicate relations of syntax, it may be more appropriately 
considered under the head of prosody.) 

The subjects of prosody will accordingly be Punctuation, 
Accent, Emphasis, Rhythm, Metre, and Versification. 


* PUNCTUATION. 


4B0. Punctuation is the division of a written or 
printed composition by marks, which are called points 
or stops. These marks regulate the utterance of the 
sentences by indicating the appropriate pauses, and 
serve to show their grammatical construction. 


431. The points in general use are the following : 


The comma . . . , 

The semicolon . . ; 

The colon . . . : 

The period, or full-stop . 


The note of interrogation ? 
The note of exclamation ! 
The parenthesis . . ( ) 

The dash . . . — 


Obs.— The first four are the principal stops, and are the points 
properly so called, or grammatical points, being employed lor the 
grammatical division of sentences. 

The last four have been termed rhetorical points: as they are 
employed for the indication of the peculiar rhetorical forms given to 
a sentence or phrase. 

432. The Comma (,) indicates the shortest pause; 
the Semicolon (;) a pause longer than the comma; 
the Colon (:)' a pause longer than the semicolon; 


430. What is Punctuation ? 431. Name and write down the Points in general 
U6e. 432. What do the four principal points severally indicate ? 




PUNCTUATION. 


201 


and tLe Period, or full-stop (.), tlie longest pause of 

all 

The importance of punctuation and of the proper em¬ 
ployment of pauses, is illustrated by the following example 
of the correct and of the incorrect introduction of points. 
Every lady in the land 
Has twenty nails upon each hand; 

Five and twenty on hands and feet: 

And this is true without deceit. 

The asseveration is untrue, and the statement contra¬ 
dictory and absurd. But punctuate the lines correctly, and 
all errors disappear. 

Every lady in the land 

Has twenty nails; upon each hand 

Five; and twenty on hands and feet: 

And this is true without deceit. 

Obs. —It is usually said that a comma indicates a pause of suffi¬ 
cient length to count one; a semicolon, to count two; a colon, to 
count three; and a period, to count four. 

The rule is useful in giving elementary instruction in reading; 
but it must not be too strongly insisted on, as the duration of tne 
various pauses varies within narrow limits, according to the diver¬ 
sities of style, sentiment, and sense. 

433. The Comma marks the slightest pause, and the 
least interruption in the grammatical continuity of the 
sentence. 

“ They sought for principles of jurisprudence in the 
Mosaic law, and for precedents to guide their ordinary 
conduct in the Books of Judges and Kings.” 

The comma is employed to indicate the pause required in 
consequence of the omission of a conjunction, the suppres¬ 
sion of a verb or other word needed to complete the gram¬ 
matical construction, to show the separation of a subor¬ 
dinate from a principal sentence, of subordinate sentences or 
phrases from each other, and also when there is contrast or 
opposition between words or clauses. 

Obs. —The special rules for punctuation are very numerous, and 
are, in great measure, very unsettled—their employment in practice 
being generally regulated by the usage of the printers. The rules 
for tne insert.on or omission of the comma are both more numerous 
and more fluctuating than for any of the other points. 


433. What does the Comma mark ? 



202 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


434. The Semicolon (;) is used to separate the parts 
of complex and of compound sentences. It is also 
employed in place of a comma when commas have 
preceded, and when a longer pause and a different 
distinction are required. 

“ But on this grand point of the restoration of the 
country, there is not one syllable to be found in the cor¬ 
respondence of our ministers, from the first to the last; 
they felt nothing for a land desolated by fire, sword, and 
famine: their sympathies took another direction; they 
were touched with pity for bribery, so long tormented with 
a fruitless itching of its palms; their bowels yearned for 
usury, that had long missed the harvest of its returning 
months; they felt for peculation, that had been for many 
years raking in the dust of an empty treasury; they were 
melted into compassion for rapine and oppression, licking 
their dry, parched, and unbloody jaws.” 

Obs.—T he special rules for the use of the semicolon are not 
numerous. 

435. The Colon (:) is employed when the sentence 
might be divided into two by the use of the full-stop, 
if it were not desirable to connect the statements more 
closely together. 

The colon is also employed in place of the semicolon, 
when semicolons have preceded it, and a longer pause is 
needed. 

Behold the child, by nature’s kindly law, 

Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw: 

Some livelier plaything gives his youth delight, 

A little louder, but as empty quite : 

Scarfs, garters, gold, amuse his riper stage, 

And beads and prayer-books are the toys of age: 
Pleased with this bauble still, as that before, 

Till tired he sleeps, and life’s poor play is o’er.— Pope. 

Obs.—T he tendency at present is to discard the colon almost 
entirely. The special rules for its employment are very few. 

434. When is the Semicolon used ? 435. When should the Colon be employed f 




PUNCTUATION. 


203 


436. Tlie Period (.) or full-stop indicates the close 
of a sentence, and the completion of its sense and 
grammatical structure. 

“ All religions were tlie same to him. In private circles, 
indeed, he was in the habit of talking with profane con¬ 
tempt of the most sacred things. He therefore determined 
to let the king have the delight and glory of effecting a 
conversion. Some management, however, was necessary.” 

Obs. 1.—In a rapid and rhetorical style sentences are often sepa¬ 
rated by a period, which would ordinarily be joined in a single 
compound sentence, and be divided by a colon, or even by a semi 
colon. 

Obs. 2.—There is only one rule for the use of the period, and that 
is, to finish when you are done—to come to a full stop when the 
grammatical expression of the sense is completed. There are, con¬ 
sequently, no special rules for its use. 

Obs. 3.—When words are abbreviated, or are represented only by 
their initials, the full-stop is used to indicate their contraction; as, 
Sect. — Vol. — A. D. — D. D. — Jan. — Mr. — viz. — sill. — i. e. 

In these cases the point is a mere sign of contraction. It does 
not affect the utterance, the grammatical structure, or the sense. 

437. The Note of Interrogation (?) indicates a ques¬ 
tion, and*is placed at the end of the sentence in which 
a direct question is asked. 

“Why will they not let me remain in obscurity and 
inaction ? Are they apprehensive that, if an atom of me 
remains, the sect has something to fear ?” 

Obs. 1.—When several questions are combined in one compound 
sentence, the mark of interrogation is placed only after the last. 

Obs. 2.—When the question is indirect, that is, when the question 
is implied, or stated to have been asked, but is not actually asked 
by the form of the expression, the note of interrogation should not 
be employed. 

“ I asked him why he wept.” 

438. The Note of Exclamation (!) is placed after 
interjections, and after words and phrases used like 
interjections. 

“ Blest paper credit! last and best supply! 

That lends corruption lighter wings to fly I” 

There are three principal cases in which the note of 


436. Wliat does the Period or full-stop indicate ? 437. What does the Note of 
Interrogation indicate ? 438. Where is the Note of Exclamation employed ? 




204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


exclamation is used. 1. After interjections, and similai 
words and plirases; 2. After invocations ; 3. After exclama¬ 
tory questions to which no reply is expected. 

439. Tlie Parenthesis ( ) is used to mark and include 
a clause hastily thrown in between the parts of a sen¬ 
tence, without being needed for the completion of 
either the grammatical structure or the sense. 

“ Thus (she pursued) I discipline a son.” 

Obs. 1.—The parenthesis has two forms; brackets [ ] and 
curves ( ). The former are used when the intrusive phrase is 
foreign to the subject of the sentence, and also to enclose the larger 
parenthesis, when one parenthesis includes another. 

Obs. 2.—Parentheses should be avoided as much as possible. 
They are always cumbrous, and usually awkward. They often con¬ 
ceal both grammatical and logical confusion. Commas are usually 
substituted for them now. 

440. The Dash is used to denote an abrupt and em¬ 
phatic pause, to continue the sentence by the addition 
of new members, and to introduce changes of gram¬ 
matical structure. 

“ Every declaration of hostility renovated, and every 
act pursued with double animosity—the overrunning of 
Lombardy—the subjugation of Piedmont—the possession 
of its impregnable fortresses—the seizing on all the neutral 
States of Italy—our expulsion from Leghorn — instances, 
forever renewed, for our expulsion from Genoa—Spain 
rendered subject to them and hostile to us—Portugal bent 
under the yoke—half the empire overrun and ravaged, 
were the only signs which this mild republic thought 
proper to manifest # of her pacific sentiments.” 

Obs. 1.—The dash is a pause of variable length. The duration of 
the pause is determined in part by the sense, but mainly by the 
rhetorical effect contemplated. When it follows one of the regular 
or grammatical points, it requires the lengthening of the pause 
signified by that stop. 

Obs. 2.—The dash is often used arbitrarily and capriciously. 
There is a disposition in current literature to employ it in excess 
and without reason. 


439. How is the Parenthesis used ? 440. What does the Dash denote ? 




PUNCTUATION. 


205 


441. There are many other marks employed for 
various purposes in written and printed compositions, 
but, as they have no relation to either the construc¬ 
tion of sentences or to the pauses in their enunciation, 
they are not properly included in punctuation. 

They are only technical signs, and have scarcely any 
better claim to be embraced in English Grammar than the 
dot over the small letter i, or the stroke across the small 
letter t. 

It will be sufficient to indicate them here. They are— 
The Apostrophe (’); the Hyphen (-); the Diaeresis (“); 
the Acute Accent ('); the Grave Accent ('); the Circum¬ 
flex Accent (*); the Caret ( A ); the Brace ( j ); the Macron 
(~); the Breve ( v ); the Asterisk (*); the Index or Hand 
(); the Dagger or Obelisk (f); the Double Dagger (%); 
the Paragraph (T[); the Parallel Lines (||); the Section (§); 
and several others of less importance. 


ACCENT AND EMPHASIS, 


442. Accent, in English Grammar, denotes the 
habitual stress laid upon one of the syllables of a 
word, by which it is rendered more prominent than 
the other syllables of that word; as, in-ventin-veri- 
tion , in'-ven-to-ry. 

Obs. 1.—This definition strictly applies to the Accute Accent only 
—the only accent which sensibly affects the grammar of the English 
tongue. The distinction of accents into Acute, Grave, and Circum¬ 
flex does not require notice in this place. Their consideration 
belongs to practical elocution, or to instruction in reading. 

Obs. 2.—It is impossible to pronounce a long series of syllables 
with a uniform stress on each; and it is painful to both speaker 
and hearer to utter many syllables in succession with unvarying 
force. As the voice rises and falls, one syllable will be pronounced 
with greater force and fulness, and this gives rise to accentuation. 


441. Are any other marks employed in composition ? What are they ? 442. What 
does accent denote in English Grammar ? 



206 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


443. All English words of more than one syllable 
have one syllable accented. Many polysyllabic words 
have a secondary accent in addition to the piincipal 
accent; as, im"-por-turi-i-ty , al'-li-ga"-tor. 

Obs.— The greater number of English words may be reduced 
under special rules of accentuation; but to each rule there are 
many exceptions, as the Orthoepy of the English language is even 
more irregular than its Orthography. 

444. Emphasis is the unusual stress laid on a partic¬ 
ular word or words in a sentence, to attract attention 
to them, to increase their prominence, and to aug¬ 
ment the significance of the expression in which they 
occur. 

“ And Nathan said unto David, Thou art the man.” 

The importance of the correctness of Emphasis is shown 
by its abuse. “ And he said unto his sons, Saddle me the 
ass. So they saddled him the ass.” 

Emphasis differs from accent in this: Emphasis relates 
to words; Accent, to syllables. Accent determines Or¬ 
thoepy ; emphasis, Signification. Accent remains fixed on 
particular syllables; emphasis changes from one word to 
another with the change of import. 

RHYTHM AND METRE. 

445. Rhythm is the orderly succession of sounds, 
regulated by the intension and remission of the voice. 

Obs.—Id all the processes of creation a rhythmical movement 
may be discerned ^ but it is more distinctly presented in the succes¬ 
sions of sound than in any other phenomena. Its application to 
language is only an imitation of natural law, in accordance with 
physical and intellectual tendencies. 

446. The rhythmical arrangement of mere sounds 
produces music. The rhythmical arrangement of the 


443. What is the general rule in regard to the accentuation of English words ? 
What words may have more than one accent ? 444. What is Emphasis ? 445. What 
is Rhythm ? 446. What does the rhythmical arrangement of mere sounds produce t 



RHYTHM AND METRE. 207 

articulate and significant sounds of language produces 
tlie cadences of prose and the measures of verse. 

Obs. —Rhythm occurs and should he observed in prose as well as 
in verse. But the rhythms of prose are more complicated and ir¬ 
regular than those of verse; their range is less restricted, and is 
indefinitely variable; and as they do not occur in recurrent systems, 
their flow cannot be anticipated. 

447. Rhythm is separate and distinct from the mean¬ 
ing of the words in which it is embodied. 

It may be exhibited in the humming of a tune as much 
as in the lines of poetry. 

Obs. —Though rhythm and sense are distinct and separate, the 
rhythm should always be in perfect accordance with the meaning of 
the words, and with the sentiment conveyed. 

448. Rhythm admits of various modifications. It 
may be grave or gay, slow or rapid, simple or compli¬ 
cated, regular and recurrent, or irregular and discon¬ 
tinuous. 

The regular and recurrent forms of rhythm belong only 
to verse. The irregular and discontinuous forms characterize 
prose as well as verse. 

449. The different kinds of rhythm are determined 
by the elements of which they are composed, and by 
which the rhythm is measured. 

In all rhythm there is an orderly succession of strong 
and weak sounds. In the rhythm of language there is an 
orderly succession of long and short, or of accented and un¬ 
accented syllables. 

450. In English rhythms the succession of the ac¬ 
cented and of the unaccented syllables, and the order 
of their succession, determine the rhythm. 


What does the rhythmical arrangement of articulate and significant sounds pro¬ 
duce ? 447. Is the rhythm dependent upon the meaning of the words ? 448. What 
modifications does rhythm admit ? 449. How are the different kinds of rhythm 
determined ? 450. What determines the rhythm in English rhythms ? 


V 



208 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


451. The interval between the accented syllables, and 
the order in which they stand to the unaccented sylla¬ 
bles, furnish the measure of the rhythm, which is called 
a Metre. 

The measure, or metre, is called also a Foot, because the 
forcible descent of the foot upon the ground marks the time 
or accent in the rhythmical movement of dancing, and in 
beating time to music. 

452. The measures, metres, or feet are the elements 
of rhythm. 

’Tis moonlight 6ver 6man’s sea. 

Tell me not of joys above. 

There’s a bower of roses by Bendemeer’s stream. 

These lines exhibit different measures, metres, or feet, and, 
consequently, a diversity of rhythms. 

Obs. —The term Metre is loosely employed to designate a verse, or 
the combination of metres into lines of determinate length. Hence 
it will be expedient to designate by the name Foot, the elementary 
constituent of the rhythm. 

453. Several convenient modes have been employed 
to mark by signs the relation of the syllables in a foot 
to each other. 

Sometimes an acute accent is placed over the accented 
syllable; as, 

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 
Sometimes the signs indicating the long and short vowels 
in classical versification are used; as, 

A sharp SccusSr, but a helpless friend. 

Another mode, proposed by Latham, is to mark the ac¬ 
cented syllables by a , and the unaccented syllables by x. 
Thus the first example in this section would be represented by 
xxa xxa xxa xxa, 
and the second example by 

xa xa xa xa xa. 


451. What furnishes the measure of the rhythm ? 452. What are the elements 
of rhythm ? 453. How is the relation of the syllables in a Foot represented ? 



THE STRUCTURE OF VERSE. 


209 


Obs.—T he accent alone will be employed henceforward in the no¬ 
tation of actual verses ; the classical signs, in furnishing models of 
scansion; and both Latham’s and the classical marks, in exhibiting 
the characteristics of the different feet. 

454. The feet of common occurrence in English verse 
are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapaest, and the 
Dactyle. 

The Iambus, x a, ^ - as in preserve ,—an unaccented syl¬ 
lable followed by an accented one.- 
The Trochee, ax, - as in softly ,—an accented syllable 
followed by an unaccented one. 

The Anapaest, x x a, ^ as in reprimand ,—two unac¬ 
cented syllables followed by an accented one. 

The Dactyle, a x x, - —' as in merrily ,—an accented 

syllable followed by two accented ones. 

Obs. 1.—The dactylic rhythm occurs very rarely in English verse. 

Obs. 2.—There are some other feet which may be named, as they 
are occasionally employed. These are— 

The Spondee, a a, —, as in sheepfold— two accented syllables. 

The Pyrrhic, xx,^ as in at his (home),—two unaccented syl¬ 
lables. 

The Tribrach, x x x, ^ as in (inim-) itable —three unaccented 

syllables. 

The Cretic, or Amphimacer, a x a, - ^ as in Gorgon-eyed ,—an 
unaccented syllable between two accented ones. 

The Amphibrach, or Amphibrachys, x a x, as in espousal 

an accented between two unaccented syllables. 

The Choriambus, a x x a, as in aerolite, j. nay perhaps be 

found in English versification. 


THE STRUCTURE OF VERSE. 

455. Versification is the rhythmical arrangement of 
language according to a regularly recurrent order of 
Feet. 

The single principle of verse is repetition—usually, but 
perhaps not universally, of sound. This principle is vari¬ 
ously applied in the verse of different languages. 

In Hebrew, it appears as the recurrence of the thought, 
or parallelism, with a corresponding parallelism in the ex¬ 
pression, and in the length of the parallel members. 


454. What Feet are commonly employed in English verse ? State the character¬ 
istics of the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapaest, and the Dactyle. 455. What is 
Versification ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


210 

Canst thou draw out leviathan with a net ? 

or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down ? 

In Sanskrit, in Greek, and in Latin, the recurrence is 
shown by the return of combinations of long and short 
syllables. 

Beautiful, BagSr, triumphant, hS leapt back again t5 
his treasure. 

In Anglo-Saxon, in the old Scandinavian tongues, and in 
very early English, the repetition takes place in the initial 
letters, and is called Alliteration. 

Instead of citing an Anglo-Saxon couplet, a specimen of 
pure alliteration is introduced. 

Cossack commanders cannonading come. 

In the modern languages the recurrence takes place by 
the return of accented syllables at regular intervals. 

Rhyme, in all its forms, is an additional device of the same 
character, being the regular recurrence of the same sounds 
in corresponding positions. 

Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, from whom all glories are! 
And glory to our sovereign liege, King Henry of Navarre! 

456. A Verse, or Line of Poetry, consists of the 
combination of a definite number of feet; or of a cer¬ 
tain number of recurrences of the foot adopted as the 
measure of the rhythm. 

457. The division of a verse into its metrical con¬ 
stituents, or into the feet of which it is composed, is 
called Scansion. 

Scansion is thus the separation of the accented syllables 
with then dependent unaccented ones from each other; or 
the indication of the rhythmical intervals between the ac¬ 
cented syllables. 

Perpendicular lines drawn between the several feet are 
employed to indicate the scansion of verses. Thus: 

Who has not | heard of the | Yale of Cash- | mere? 


456. Of what does a Verse consist ? 457. What is meant by Scansion ? 



THE STRUCTURE OF VERSE. 


211 


458. Verses, or the different kinds of verse, are dis¬ 
tinguished and named from the feet, and from the 
number of feet, employed in them. 

Thus a verse consisting of five Iambic feet is called an 
Iambic Pentameter. 

And La- | ra sleeps | not where | his fa- | thers sleep. 

It is composed of Iambuses, therefore, it is Iambic. 

It consists of five Iambuses, therefore, it is called a Penta¬ 
meter, or line of five metres—Pentameter meaning five 
metres. 

459. The principal forms of English verse are the 
Iambic, the Trochaic, the Anapaestic, and the Dactylic, 
according as the rhythm is built upon the Iambus, the 
Trochee, the Anapaest, or the Dactyle. 

Obs.— There are some other forms, but they are either extravagant 
improprieties, like the imitations of the Classic Metres, or they are 
very unusual, and rarely sustained throughout a poem. 

460. The chief combinations of feet are into lines 
consisting of one foot or metre, two metres, three 
metres, four metres, five metres, six metres, seven 
metres, and occasionally eight metres. 

The lines so formed are called respectively Monometer, 
Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, Hexameter, 
Heptameter, and Octometer. 

461. In the commencement of a verse an unaccented 
syllable is frequently deficient; and in the close of a 
verse an unaccented syllable is sometimes redundant, 
and sometimes in defect. 

462. One foot may occasionally be exchanged for 


458. How are verses distinguished and named ? 459. What are the principal 
forms of English verse ? 460. What are the chief combinations of feet into lines ? 
What are these lines respectively termed ? 461. Are verses always perfect in the 
number of their feet ? 462. May one foot be substituted for another ? 



212 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


another of equal weight, especially at the beginning of 
a verse. 

Thus the Trochee sometimes takes the place of an 
Iambus. 

Lands he | could meas- | ure; terms | and tides | presage. 
The Anapaest and even the Tribrach are sometimes used 
for an Iambus. 

Saith Bra- | cy the bard; \ so let | it knell. 
Sometimes an Iambus gives place to a Spondee. 

Firm land | embos- \ om’d with- | out firm- | ament 
Similar substitutions occur in Trochaic, Anapaestic, £nd 
Dactylic verse; but in them they are less frequent, usually 
less agreeable, and present a greater appearance of irregu¬ 
larity. 

463. English verse is divided into two distinct 
classes—Ehyming and Blank Yerse. 

This distinction is founded upon the characteristics of the 
final syllables of the verses, according as they agree or do 
not agree in sound with each other. 

Obs.—B oth rhyming and blank verse may he constructed with 
different feet; and with a fewer or larger number of such feet; but 
the most common form of blank verse is the Iambic Pentameter. 

464. Ehyming verse is that in which the final sylla¬ 
bles of two or more verses agree in sound. 

The needy traveller, serene and gay, 

Walks the wild heath, and sings his toil away. 

Obs. —Sometimes rhymes are introduced into the body of the 
verse. 

And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of the purple curtain 
Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before. 
This is called Sectional Rhyme. 

465. Three things are required to constitute a perfect 
rhyme: The vowel sounds and the sounds succeeding 
must be identical; the sounds preceding the vowel 
sounds must be different; the rhyming syllables must 
be similarly accented. 


468. Into what two classes is English verse divided ? 464. What constitutes 
Rhyming Verse ? 465. What is requisite for a perfect rhyme ? 




THE STRUCTURE OF VERSE. 


213 


“ Remind us” and “ behind us” are perfect rhymes; so are 
“sublime” and “time”: but “roaming” and “coming,” 
“ shut” and “ put,” are imperfect or false rhymes. 

i The agreement required is solely in the sound of the syl¬ 
lables, not in then* spelling. “Cost” and “post” do not 
rhyme; “ straight” and “ fate” do. 

460. Khymes may be single, double, or treble, ac¬ 
cording as the rhyme rests upon one, two, or three 

[ syllables. 

“ Breeze” and “ freeze” are single rhymes. “ Double” and 
“ trouble” are double rhymes. “ Satiety” and “ variety” are 
treble rhymes. 

467. When the rhymes occur at the end of two suc¬ 
cessive lines, these form a Couplet. 

Sure, ’tis an orthodox opinion, 

That grace is founded in dominion. 

468. When the rhymes occur at the end of three 
successive lines, they form a triplet. 

Clime of the unforgotten brave, 

Whose land, from plain to mountain cave, 

Was freedom’s home, or glory’s grave. 

469. Two couplets joined together, or four lines 
rhyming alternately, or a couplet between two rhyming 
lines, are called a Quatrain. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
The deep unfathom’d caves of ocean bear; 

Full many a flower is bom to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

470. Longer combinations of rhyming lines are 
called Stanzas, if the rhymes recur according to a regu¬ 
lar order. 

Obs.—T he consideration of the quatrain, stanza, and other com¬ 
binations of lines, belong to the second part of versification, which 
treats of metrical systems, or the union of verses in the construe 
tion of poems. 


466. How are rhymes distinguished ? Give examples of perfect and imperfect 
rhymes. 467. What is a Couplet? 468. What is a Triplet? 469. What is a 
Quatrain ? 470. What are longer combinations of rhyming lines called ? 





214 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


471. Blank Yerse is verse composed without final, 
sectional, or other rhymes. 

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad: 

Silence accompanied ; for beast and bird, 

They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 

Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale ; 

She, all night long, her amorous descant sung. 

Obs.—B lank Verse occurs in various forms in English poetry. 
Besides the common form just illustrated, many more direct imita¬ 
tions of classical models have been attempted with little success. 

The Heroic Hexameter has been employed by Longfellow, Kingsley, 
Herschel, and many others. 

S6 passed the | morning a- | way. And | 16 ! with a | summons so- | nor6us 
Sounded the | bell from its | tower, and | over the | meadows a | drum beat. 

The Hexameter and Pentameter verse has been exemplified by 
Coleridge. 

In the hex- | ameter | rises the | fountain’s | silvery | column: 

In the pent- | ameter | aye | falling in | melody | back. 

The Sapphic and Adonic verse, attempted by Southey, was ridi¬ 
culed by Canning. 

Needy [ Knife-Grind- | er! whither I are you | g6ing? 

Rough is | the road, I your wheel is | out of | 6rder— 

Bleak blows | the blast: | your hat has | got a | h61e in’t, 

So have your | breeches! 

Collins, in his Ode to Evening, has employed Iambic blank verses 
of unequal length in the formation of regular stanzas ; and Southey, 
in his Thalaba, as well as Shelley in his Queen Mab, have endeav¬ 
ored to reproduce the free lyric movement of the Greek choral songs 
by employing unrhymed verses of unequal length and varying 
rhythm. 


THE COMBINATION OF VERSES. 

472. Tlie Rhythm of verse is either discrete or con¬ 
tinuous. 

473. The rhythm is discrete when it is completed in 
each line. 

474. The rhythm is continuous when it flows on 
through several successive lines, and is closed only 
with the last. 


471. Ho\y is Blank Verse composed ? 472. Of what two kinds is the,rhythm of 
verse ? 473. When is the rhythm discrete ? 474. When is the rhythm continuous 



THE COMBINATION OF VERSES. 215 


475. Most poems in English are written in discrete 
rhythm. 


Dithyrambie poems, or odes, such as Diyden’s Ode on St. 
Cecilia’s Day and Collins’s Ode on the Passions, are written 
in continuous rhythm. 


J&E&nP 1 ' 1 £ Te s . ev ? ral Poems of more regular form than odes, in 
which the rhythm is formally discrete, but really continuous The 
several verses are of corresponding length, the final rhymes are sym- 
?ri**u Ca lly arranged, hut the complicated melody is not completed 
till the end of the strain. 

Of this character are Poe’s Raven and Annabel Lee, and Tenny¬ 
son’s Lady of Shalott. J 


476. The expression of verse is varied by the char¬ 
acter and number of the feet employed in the several 
lines; by the number of lines joined together in a 
stanza or system ; and by the modes in which they are 
combined. 


Obs.—T he actual modes in which verses of the same or of dif¬ 
ferent kinds have been conjoined, are so numerous, and the possible 
modes in which they may be conjoined are so innumerable, that no 
attempt can be made here to illustrate them all, and no suflicient 
space can be allowed for explaining the diversity of effects produced 
by diversity of combinations, or the causes of such diversity of 
effects. 

477. The most familiar combinations of verses into 
systems shorter than stanzas are the following. 

1. Blank Yerse, consisting of single unrhymed lines uni¬ 
formly repeated. 

Obs—I n this form of versification a partial continuity of rhythm 
is produced by the repetition of the complete rhythms of the single 
lines, and the extension of the sense from one line to another. 

2. The Couplet, two consecutive lines rhyming together, 
and forming a complete system, continually repeated. 

In full-blown dignity see Wolsey stand, 

Law in his voice and fortune in his hand; 

To him the church, the realm, their powers consign, 
Through him the rays of regal bounty shine; 

Turn’d by his nod the stream of honor flows, 

His smile alone security bestows.— Sam. Johnson. 


475. In what rhythm are most English poems written ? 476. How is the expres¬ 
sion of verse varied ? 477. What are the more common systems of verse, sho/ter 
than stanzas ? 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Triplet, three consecutive lines rhyming together. 

The harder question yet remains behind, 

What pains a parent and a prince can find, 

To punish an offence of this degenerate kind.— Dryden. 

4. The Quatrain; consisting of four lines. This assmnes 
many forms, according to the relative length of the lines, the 
number and the position of the rhymes. 

The undistinguish’d seeds of good and ill, 

Heaven, in his bosom, from our knowledge hides; 
And draws them in contempt of human skill, 

Which oft for friends mistaken foes provides.— Dryden. 

478. Stanza is the generic name given to those regu¬ 
lar combinations of four or more lines which do not 
exceed nine lines. 

470. The varieties of the stanza are very numerous. 
The following are the characteristic types. 

1. The Quintain, or stanza of five lines: 

When Nature tries her finest touch, 

Weaving her venial wreath, 

Mark ye how close she veils her round, 

Not to be traced by sight or sound, 

Nor soiled by ruder breath.— Ketile. 

2. The Sextain, or stanza of six lines : 

So changes mortal life with fleeting yearn; 

A mournful change, should Reason fail to bring 
The timely insight that can temper fears, 

And from vicissitude remove its sting; 

While Faith aspires to seats in that domain 
Where joys are perfect—neither wax nor wane. 

— Wordsworth. 

3. The Septain, or stanza of seven lines: 

So on the top of his subduing tongue 
All kind of arguments and question deep, 


478. What is a Stanza? 479. What are the principal varieties of the stanza? 




THE COMBINATION OF VERSES. 


217 


All replication prompt, and reason strong, 

For his advantage still did wake and sleep; 

To make the weeper laugh, the laugher weep; 

He had the dialect and different skill, 

Catching all passions in his craft of will.— Shakespeare. 

Obs.— This stanza is called the Rhyme Royal. It was employed 
by Chaucer in the Tale of the Clerke of Oxenforde, by Spenser in 
his Hymns on Love and Beauty, and by Shakespeare in his Lover’s 
Complaint. 

4. The Ottava Rima, or stanza of eight lines. 

This is imitated from the Italian. The first six lines 
rhyme alternately, the last two rhyme together. 

In the first year of freedom’s second dawn 
Died George the Third,—although no tyrant, one 
Who shielded tyrants, till each sense withdrawn 
Left him nor mental nor, external sun: 

A better farmer ne’er brushed dew from lawn, 

A worse king never left a realm undone! 

He died—but left his subjects still behind, 

One half as mad—and t’other no less blind.— Byron. 

5. The Spenserian Stanza, consisting of nine lines—the 
last an Alexandrine, or verse of six Iambuses : 

The Niobe of nations! there she stands, 

Childless and crownless in her voiceless woe; 

An empty urn within her withered hands, 

Whose holy dust was scattered long ago ; 

The Scipios’ tomb contains no ashes now; 

The very sepulchres lie tenantless 
Of their heroic dwellers: dost thou flow, 

Old Tiber! through a marble wilderness ? 

Rise with thy yellow waves, and mantle her distress! 

— Byron. 

Obs.— This beautiful but difficult form of versification was con 
structed by Spenser from the Ottava Rima, by altering the order of 
the rhymes, and adding an Alexandrine, or Iambic Hexameter at the 
close. In this verse he wrote the Faerie Queene. It is also the vers« 
of Thomson’s Castle of Indolence, Beattie’s Minstrel, and Byron’s 
Childe Harold. It ranks as one of the highest and most effective 
species of English verse. 

480. The Sonnet is a form of versification interme- 


480. What is the character of the Sonnet ? 
10 



218 


ENGLISH GKAMMAIi. 


diate between discrete and continuous rhythm, and 
partaking of the nature of both. 

This is the most intricately formal type of verse compo¬ 
sition. Wordsworth’s Sonnet on Milton furnishes a fine 
example of this difficult form of versification. 

Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour: 

England hath need of thee ; she is a fen 
Of stagnant waters; altar, sword, and pen, 

Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower, 

Have forfeited their ancient English dower 
Of inward happiness. We are selfish men; 

O, raise us up, return to us again, 

And give us manners, virtue, freedom, power 1 
Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart; 

Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea; 

Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free, 

So didst thou travel on life’s common way, 

In cheerful godliness ; and yet thy heart 
The lowliest duties on herself did lay. 

The sonnet consists of fourteen Iambic Pentameters, ar¬ 
ranged in two quatrains, followed by a sextain. It usually 
contains five rhymes, which may be disposed in various 
ways; but it sometimes introduces as many as seven. 

Obs.—T he sonnet is a complete poem within a definite and nar¬ 
row compass. It is perfectly symmetrical in form, and is strictly 
limited in extent. The rhythm should flow continuously from the 
beginning to the end; and yet it is constructed with verses of uni¬ 
form length and character, and with rhymes regularly recurring. 

The English language is singularly unfavorable to the development 
of the peculiar graces of the sonnet. Shakespeare, Milton, and 
Wordsworth have succeeded best in its cultivation. 

481. There are other forms of symmetrical versifica¬ 
tion. 

Such are Lozenges, Hatchets, Altars, Wings, Eggs, etc., 
in which the varying lengths of the lines produce the fig¬ 
ures of the things designated by these names. 

Obs.— These regular irregularities are contrived only by poets of 
more dexterity than taste or judgment. Examples may be found in 
Herbert, Wither, etc. 


Of what does the sonnet consist ? 481. Are there other forma of sy mm etrical 
versification ? What are they ? 



THE COMBINATION OF VEKSES. 


219 


482. Continuous Rhythms are those which sweep with 
an uninterrupted modulation from the beginning to the 
end of a system. 

There may be pauses or rests—must be, indeed—in these 
rhythms. These pauses are marked by the termination of 
the several lines; but they are only breaks, not closes, in the 
melody. The whole system must be regarded as one com¬ 
posite rhythm, and may be treated as a single extended verse 
separated into sections of varying length by metrical pauses. 

483. Continuous rhythms are of two kinds in En glish 
versification—Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical. 

Obs.—B ut little attention has been paid by writers on English 
Grammar or on English Composition to these rhythms. 

484. Symmetrical continuous rhythm expresses an 
extended melody through the regular metrical forms 
of the stanza, or other combinations of verse. 

Milton’s L’Allegro, II Penseroso, and Lycidas, and Shelley’s 
lines among the Euganean Hills may seive as examples. 

485. Unsymmetrical continuous rhythm prolongs an 
unbroken melody through lines of varying length, with 
rhymes irregularly arranged. 

Obs. 1.—These rhythms have been rarely employed with success 
in English versification. Dryden, Collins, Coleridge, Shelley, have 
displayed considerable mastery over their difficult beauties. 

Obs. 2.—The continuous rhythms are formed from the due combi¬ 
nation of all the elements of rhythm. They are subdivided by the 
rhythmical movements of the several lines, and each line is addition¬ 
ally modulated by the metrical pauses, which introduce variety with¬ 
out destroying the harmony. 

The roar or the waves breaking on the rocky shore of a stormy 
sea is the conjoint result of many sounds variously proportioned 
among themselves, and comprising the almost inaudible murmurs 
of the slighter undulations, as well as the louder reverberations of 
the bursting billows. All combine together in a marvellous and in¬ 
extricable harmony, and produce upon ear and heart a single though 
composite effect. So, in the movements of continuous rhythm, the 
general melody unites in one delightful impression the larger pro¬ 
portion with all the smaller proportions of sound comprehended 
within it, and the continuous rhythm itself rolls on. 

Distinct as the billows, though one as the sea. 


482 What are Continuous Rhythms ? 483. What are the two kinds of continu¬ 
ous rhythm? 484. What is the nature of Symmetrical continuous rhythm? 
485 What is the character of Unsymmetrical continuous rhythm ? 





EXERCISES FOE PABSING. 

To Parse is to point out the class to which each 
word in the sentence belongs, or to designate what 
Part of Speech it is; to tell its number, gender, case, 
person, degree, voice, tense, mood, &c .; to indicate the 
word or words on which it depends, or which are de¬ 
pendent on it; to state the words which agree with 
each other, or the words and clauses which are con¬ 
nected with each other; and to give the definitions 
and rules which explain these various peculiarities, or 
affections of words. 

To Parse is, therefore, to declare and explain the 
etymological character, and the syntactical relations 
of the words employed in forming a sentence. 

The practise of parsing, as ordinarily conducted, may be„ 
easily earned too far in the exercises of the school. Its object 
is to familiarize the scholar with the character, forms, and 
inflections of English words, and with the requirements of 
syntax in their combination into sentences. To this extent, 
it is an indispensable discipline. But, after this knowledge 
has been acquired, it should not be too diligently prosecuted, 
for there is danger of its producing a mechanical and formal 
precision—a pedantic superficiality—which prevents alike 
a due appreciation of the marvellous pliability of the English 
tongue, and the desired facility in its free and graceful em¬ 
ployment in speaking and writing. 

It is, accordingly, recommended that parsing be prose¬ 
cuted only so far as is needful to impress permanently upon 
the mind the general principles of grammar, and not so far 
as to produce the delusion that the knowledge of these can 
be accepted as a sufficient knowledge of English. 




EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


221 


I. THE NOUN. 

(Arts. 84-95, 164-198.) 

MODELS. 

1. “ Mary studies her lesson .” 

Mary....is a noun, proper, feminine, singular, nominative; the 
subject of the verb studies. Rule I. Art. 371. (Repeat 
the rule.) 

lesson. ...is a noun, common, neuter, singular, objective, after the 
transitive verb studies. Rule XV. Art. 385. (Repeat 
the rule.) 

2. “ Charles , give this book to Jane, Mary's sister .” 

Charles.. is a noun, proper, masculine, singular, nominative; and 
is independent, being a term of address. (R. XIV.) 

hook .is a noun, common, neuter, singular, objective, after the 

transitive verb give. (R. XV.) 

Jane.is a noun, proper, feminine, singular, objective, after the 

preposition to. (R. XXIV.) 

Mary’s... is a noun, proper, feminine, singular, possessive, qualify¬ 
ing sister. (R. XXI.) 

sister ... .is a noun, common, feminine, singular, objective, in appo¬ 
sition with Jane. (R. VI.) 

Obs. —Definitions should be required from the beginner, and the 
rules of syntax should not be required until the young pupil be¬ 
comes familiar with Etymology. 

Exercises. 

Parse the Nouns in the following sentences. 

The ship struck upon a rock. He attempted to screen 
the criminal. Caligula, the Roman emperor, bestowed the 
consulship on his horse, Incitatus. The travellers came to 
a wide valley. Her dreSfe was covered with lace and jewels. 
When a breeze sprang up, we hoisted our sails and put out 
to sea. Set a thief to catch a thief. The curfew tolls the 
knell of parting day. He exercised his authority with judg- 




222 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


ment and decision. Out of the eater came forth meat, and 
out of the strong ( animal) came forth sweetness. The city 
of Constantinople is built, in an exquisite situation, on the 
Golden Horn, a branch of the Bosphorus. The people in 
the neighborhood of the village collected money enough to 
pay for the erection of a large church. 


II. THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ARTICLE. 


(Arts. 96-105, 206-216; 68, 78-83.) 

MODELS. 

1. “ Three skilful huntsmen tracked the grizzly bear.” 

Three....is a numerical adjective, cardinal; belongs to huntsmen 
(R. XII.), neap able of comparison, 
skilful .. .is an adjective, qualifies huntsmen (R. XII.); comparison, 
skilful, more skilful, most skilful. (Art. 215.) 

the.is an article, limiting bear. (R. XI.) 

grizzly...is an adjective, qualifying bear (R. XII.); grizzly, more 
grizzly, most grizzly ; or, grizzlier, grizzliest . 


2. “ A little, fat, old man, with the ugliest kind of face, but with an odd 
twinkle about his bright, grey eyes, appeared at the opposite window .” 


A.an article, indefinite, limiting man (R. XI.); a before a 

word beginning with a consonant. (Art. 83.) 

little.an adjective, qualifies man (R. XII.), positive degree; 

comparison irregular, little, less, least. (Art. 216.) 

fat.an adjective, qualifies man (R. XII.), positive degree; 

comp., fat, fatter, fattest. 

old.... ...an adjective, qualifies man (R. XII.), positive degree; 

comp, regular and irregular, old, older or elder, oldest or 
eldest. (Art. 216.) 

the.an article, definite, limiting kind. (R. XI.) 

ugliest.. .an adjective, qualifying kind (R. XII.), superlative degree 
(Art. 212); comp., ugly, uglier, ugliest. 

an.an article, indefinite, limiting twinkle (R. XI.); an before 

a vowel. (Art. 83.) 









EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


223 


odd.an adjective, qualifies twinkle (R. XII.), positive degree; 

comp., odd, odder , oddest. 

bright.. . .an adjective, qualifies eyes (R. XII.), positive degree— 
bright, brighter, brightest. 

grey .an adjective, qualifies eyes (R. XII.), positive degree— 

grey\ greyer, greyest; rarely admits comparison. (Art. 216, 
Obs. 4.) 

the .an article, definite, limiting window. (R. XI.) 

opposite..an adjective, qualifying window (R. XII.); compared, in 
some of its significations— opposite, more opposite , most 
opposite. (See Arts. 215, 216, Obs. 4.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Articles, Adjectives, and Numerals in the following 

sentences. 

A yellow dog has a bad character. The most violent 
storms take place within the tropical regions. I want the 
fourth boy to mention six adjectives. The first shall be 
last, and the last shall be first. The English language is 
copious and expressive, though it is a less musical tongue 
than the Italian. The most generous man is not always 
the safest adviser. All classes, rich and poor, high and 
low, wise and foolish, are exposed to sudden and grievous 
calamities. In the second battle more than a thousand 
soldiers were left dead upon the field. The setting sun was 
surrounded by clouds more gorgeous and magnificent than 
the courtiers around the most splendid Oriental throne. A 
gentler and more obedient dog is not to be found. The 
smallest children may venture to pat his shaggy head. 

III. THE PRONOUN. 

(Arts. 106-129, 199-205.) 

MODELS. 

1. “ Lucy called her brother , and he came to her A 
her. ..a pronoun, adjective, possessive: agreeing with Lucy in gen¬ 
der, number, and person (Rule VII.), and qualifying brother. 
(R. XII.) 





224 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


he. a pronoun, personal, third person, sing.; agreeing with 

brother (R VII.), nominative to the verb came (R. I.); 
nom., he, she, it; possessive, his, hers, its; objective, 
him, her, it. 

her.a pronoun, personal, third person, feminine, sing.; agree¬ 

ing with Lucy (R. VII.); objective after the preposition 
to (R. XXIV.); nom., he, she, it, etc. 


2. “ Henry knew the man who brought the message” 

who .a pronoun, relative, third pei-son, masculine, singular, 

agreeing with man (R. IX.); nom. to the verb brought 
(R. I.) Nom., who; poss., whose; obj., whom. 

3. “ Every scholar should remember this rule” 

every .a pronoun, adjective, distributive; limits scholar. (R. 

XII.) 

this-- . .a pronoun, adjective, demonstrative, agrees in number 

with rule. (R. VIII.) 

4. “ Whom did you see ? ” 

whom .a pron.; interrogative, agreeing with the pronoun or 

noun, in the answer—therefore indiscriminate. (R. X.) 
Obj., dependent on the transitive verb see. (R. XX.) 

5. “ Whoever studies diligently, will learn” 

whoever... a pronoun, compound relative, referring to he, or she, 
understood ; nominative to studies. (Rule I.) 

Obs.—W ords required for the grammatical completeness of this 
sentence are often omitted in English, as in all other languages. 
Such words, not being expressed, are said to be understood. In 
parsing, it is always necessary to supply them. In the present 
example, he or she may be understood; the antecedent must be 
singular, as is shown by the verb studies ; it must be masculine or 
feminine, as intelligence is required. 

6. “ I wish to do whatever is right.” 

whatever.. a pron. ; compound rel.: equivalent to “ that, which 
ever, that, being the object of to do, and which ever, the 
subject of is. (Art. 116. Obs. R. XV. and I.) 







EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


225 


Exercises. 

Parse the Pronouns in the following sentences. 

I know not of whom he speaks. I welcomed those who 
came to see me, though they did not bring me the relief 
that I expected from them. We seldom have such hot 
weather in April as we have in September. (Arts. 129, 118.) 
My father sent me to say that he wants that gun that he 
lent you some weeks since. I know it to be mine, for I 
bought it with my own money. Whatever you may say, it 
is not yours, nor John’s, nor any other’s, but one of mine. 
(Art. 202; Obs. 3, 4.) Is it possible that the soldier whose 
arm was broken should have no knowledge of what he felt, 
when the ball struck him, if he was able to walk many miles 
to seek aid from others ? Who would have thought that any 
such act would have been performed by one who had 
enjoyed so many advantages as he ? What must we think 
of him? Let him excuse his offence himself, if he can: no 
one else can invent any excuse for him. 


IV. THE VERB. 

(Arts. 130-137, 219-301.) 

MODELS 

1. “ Brutus stabbed Coesar .” 

stabbed. .is a verb, regular, transitive, active, indicative, present, 
3d pers. sing, {stab—stabbed—stabbed), agreeing with its 
subject Brutus (R. II.), and followed by Ceesar in the ob¬ 
jective. (R. XV.) 

2. “ The boys are anxious to go.” 

■are.is a verb, irregular, 3d pers. sing. pres. ind. [am—was—been), 

agreeing with its nom. boys. (R. II.) 

to go.is a verb, irregular, intransitive, present, infinitive {go— 

went—gone), dependent upon anxious. (R. XXVI.) 

10 * 




226 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


3. “ He has been caught robbing birds' nests." 

has been ) is a verb, irregular, transitive, 3d pers. sing. pres. perf. 

caught.. f indie, passive (catch — caught—caught) ; agreeing with its 
nom. he. (R. II.) 

robbing.. .a verb, reg. trans. present participle, active (rob—robbed 
—robbed ), followed by its object nests (R. XV.), and quali¬ 
fying he (R. XII.). [Or it may be considered as a par¬ 
ticipial noun in the objective after a preposition under¬ 
stood—“ in the act of robbing.”] 

Exercises. 

Parse the Verbs in the following sentences ; parse also the Articles, 
Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. 

Accept my thanks for the pretty book which you have 
given me. I am much pleased with it. I will read it in 
our holidays, which will be in a few days. I wish you 
would try to work that sum. Let us cast up the account. 
He was chosen captain of a volunteer company. He was 
called the greatest orator of his own age. He was not 
always successful in pleading, but he always spoke so as to 
produce a great impression. The children were very fond 
of their dog, and taught him many amusing tricks. Having 
collected his army, Hannibal began his march. It should 
have commenced at an earlier season of the year, if he had 
not been delayed several weeks by the difficulty of receiving 
provisions. Each window of the church which was built 
last year cost two hundred dollars. 

V. THE ADVERB. 

(Arts. 138-140, 217, 218.) 

MODELS. 

1. “ Storms hare occurred frequently this summer." 

frequently, .is an adverb (of number), qualifying the verb occurred. 
(R. XXXIV.) 


EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


227 


2. “ Storms occurred still oftener last year” 

still.an adv. (of degree) qualifying the adverb oftener. (R. 

XXXIY.) 

oftener.an adv. (of time) comp, degree {often — oftener — oftenest), 

qualifying the verb occurred. (R. XXXIV.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Adverbs in the following sentences; also the Articles, 
Nouns, Adjectives , Pronouns, and Verbs. 

The boy learns veiy well. Our friends arrived much 
sooner than was expected. The fishermen were vigorously 
hauling their nets, when the rope broke suddenly, and fish 
and nets were hopelessly lost. Yesterday, we were kindly 
invited to join a holiday party. All were to go together, 
but when everything was quite ready, a very heavy shower 
completely spoiled our project. We were much disappoint¬ 
ed; but waited patiently, thinking that perhaps it would 
become fair. When it cleared up (Art. 264, Obs. 1), it was 
thought to be too late then to set out on so long an excur¬ 
sion ; so we sorrowfully submitted to our disappointment. 
How can any one foretell what his fortune in life is most 
likely to be ? Where did you find that beautifully marked 
agate? Was it anywhere near this lake? No, I did not 
find it there. 

VI. THE PREPOSITION. 

(Arts. 141-146.) 

MODEL. 

“ The builder fell from the top of the house.” 

from, .is a preposition (simple) followed by toy in the objective case, 
and showing its relation to the verb fell. 

of.a prep, (simple) followed by house in the obj., aud showing 

its relation to the word top. 

Note.— In such expressions as The tree was blown down by the 
gale , down is usually parsed as an adverb; but. it may be treated as 
a preposition compounded with the verb blow , though separated 
from it. (Art. 142, Obs. 1, 2.) 





228 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Exercises. 

Parse the Prepositions in the following sentences ; also the Arti¬ 
cks, Nouns, Adjectives , Pronouns, Verbs, and Adverbs. 

There was a tear in her eye. The trees were in scattered 
clumps upon the hills. Row us across the river. We 
buried him at dead of night. The moon rose up from be¬ 
hind a bank of dark clouds. The fields were covered with 
snow. On the lake was one great sheet of ice. A crowd 
of men and boys was still skating on its glassy surface. Sud¬ 
denly a scream ran across the lake. The ice had broken in 
under a little boy. A crowd gathered near the hole where 
he had disappeared. Everybody feared to approach near 
the hole. It was soon seen that there was not the least 
hope for the boy, as he had gone down at once to the bot¬ 
tom of the water. Such calamities often sadden the amuse¬ 
ments of winter. 

VII. THE CONJUNCTION. 

(Arts. 147-156.) 

MODELS. 

1. “ Slowly and sadly we laid him down.” 

and.Is a conjunction, copulative, connecting slowly and sadly , 

adverbs. (R. XXIX.) 

2. “ Live well that you may die well.' 

that.a conjunction, connecting together the two clauses, live 

well and you may die well. 

Exercises. 

Parse the Conjunctions in the following sentences ; and also all the 

other words. 

Neither you nor I shall live to see it. The sighing of the 
breeze, and the murmur of the waves, and the song of birds, 




EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


229 


are much more agreeable sounds than the barking of dogs 
or the screaming of children. To make bears and elephants 
dance, and to teach dogs to perform ballets, or horses to 
exhibit tricks, he considered as freaks of cruelty. Consider 
the ravens, for they neither sow nor reap, and they have 
neither storehouse nor barn, yet your Heavenly Father 
feedeth them. As he has loved me so have I loved him. 
(Art. 154.) Be sure to write, so that there may be no mis¬ 
take. Another man might have done it, as well as you 
could have hoped to do it yourself. (Art. 150.) If he told 
you so, you may be certain that it is true. 


VIII. THE INTERJECTION. 

(Arts. 157-159.) 

MODELS. 

1. " Lo ! I am with you always .” 

lo .is aninterj., and construed by itself. (R. XXXVII.) 

2. “ Oh ! what a fall was there ! ” 

oh .an inteij., construed by itself. (R. XXXVII.) 


what a fall, .an interjectional phrase (Art. 158), construed by itself 
was there. . .(R. XXXVII.) as an interjection; but capable of being 
parsed as a clause. 


Exercises. 

Parse the Interjections and other words in the following sen¬ 
tences. 

Behold 1 I stand at the door and knock. Alas! there is 
no hope of saving his life. Oh hark ! oh hear 1 how thin 
and clear the sounds of elfland faintly blowing. Oh ye of t 
little faith! Woe unto thee, Chorazin! Woe unto thee, 
Bethsaida ! O Annie, speak to me ! Ah ! ah!—I am so 
ill! Adieu! adieu! adieu to you all! Woe betide you, 
Annan Water! The heralds cried, Ho ! Ho! 




230 


ENGLISH GEAMMAIt. 


Transposition and Ellipsis. 

In parsing the literary language as it is met with in 
books, and still more, in parsing idiomatic phrases, it is 
often necessary to convert the rhetorical form of an expres¬ 
sion into the ordinary and grammatical order of the words. 
(See Art. 408.) This is called Transposition. 

Example op Transposition. 

“Peter,” said Henry, with a resolute air, “are you not 
tired of living with men ?” 

Transposed: Henry said with a resolute air, “ Peter, are 
not you tired of living with men ?” 

It is also necessary to complete the grammatical struc¬ 
ture of the sentence by supplying such words as are not 
expressed , but only understood. This omission of words is 
called Ellipsis. 

Example of Ellipses supplied. 

I might go try my fortune as you bade, 

And joining Lucca, helped by your disgrace, 

Repair our harm. 

Ellipses supplied: I might go and I might try my fortune 
as you bade me to do , and joining Lucca, helped (or that 
would be helped) by your disgrace, I might repair our harm. 

The most common Ellipses are— 

1. Of the Relative Pronoun as the object of the Verb: 
The apple (which) you took was mine. 

2. Of the Antecedent to the Relative: (he) “ Who steals 
my purse, steals trash.” 

3. Of the Auxiliary to the second Verb, when two Verbs 
are connected by a Conjunction : We had caught and (had) 
killed the fox before noon. 

4. Of a Preposition after a Verb: “ Steal forth (from) thy 
father’s house.” 

5. Of the Conjunction that: He knew (that) I knew T (that) 
he knew. 


EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


231 


Ambiguous Words that may belong to different Parts of 

Speech. 

In English, as in all languages, there are words which are 
sometimes of one, and sometimes of another part of speech. 
They can be referred to their proper class only by careful 
observation of their use or function in the sentence, or part 
of the sentence, in which they occur. There will be diver¬ 
sity of opinion in regard to their classification, whatever 
discrimination may be exercised. “ I would only remark, 
how unreasonable it is to expect schoolboys to distinguish 
accurately between Adverbs and Conjunctions, when the 
learned themselves cannot agree.”— Rushton. 

The words which most frequently occasion difficulty are, 
as, both , but, for, like, much, more, most, near , only, since, so, 
and that. 

As is an adverb, a conjunction, and a relative pronoun. 

Adv. of manner: We live as we did ; As it was expected , 
so it turned out. 

Conj.: You need not go, as I have been there. 

Rel.: The paintings are such as are found in few codec- 
tions. (Art. 118.) 

Both is an adjective and a conjunction. 

Adj.: Both were drowned. 

Conj.: Both by their preaching and by their living, they 
may set forth Thy glory. 

But is an adverb, a preposition, and a conjunction. 

Adv., meaning only: There is but one at home. 

Prep., meaning except: All but him were caught. 

Conjunc.: You may seek , but you will not find. 

Far is a preposition and conjunction. 

Prep.: They fought for freedom. 

Conj., in the sense of because: He stumbled, for he 
could not see. 

Like is an adjective and a preposition; so is near. 

Adj.: Like causes produce like effects. 

Prep.: He is like his grandfather. 



232 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Like , used as a preposition, is often considered as the Adjective, 
with the preposition to understood. It is not necessary to supply 
to. 

Much , more, most , are used as adjectives, and as adverbs 
of degree. 

Adj.: Too much learning hath made thee mad. 

Adv.: He was much pleased; his brother was more 
pleased , and his sister was most pleased of all. 

Only is an adjective, an adverb, and may sometimes be 
regarded as a conjunction. 

Adj.: The girl was an only child. 

Adv.: They were only playing. 

Conj., with the force of but: You may venture , only 
be careful. 

The instances which exhibit the conjunctive use of only are 
probably cases of the ellipse of the true conjunction but. 

Since is an adverb, a preposition, and a conjunction. 

Adv.: He has never spoken since. 

Prep.: It has been raining since morning. 

Conj.: I have changed my opinion since I saw his 
letter. 

So is an adjective-pronoun, perhaps, at times; it is an 
adverb, and a conjunction. 

Adj. pron.: You think him cautious. He is so. 

Adv.: Why were you so long on the way ? 

Conj.: Error's reign is transient; so Truth is free to 
combat it. 

That is found in the most various and the most puzzling con¬ 
structions. All its uses are derived, however, from its char¬ 
acter as a Demonstrative Pronoun. It sometimes appears 
to be almost an Article ; sometimes to be exactly equivalent 
to the Personal Pronoun it; and is continually employed as 
Demonstrative Pronoun, as a Relative, and as a Conjunction. 
Demonst. pron.: That man painted that picture. 

Rel. pron.: They that are innocent shall be released. 
Conj.: He studies that he may acquire knowledge. 

The various and perplexing uses of the word that are well 




EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


235 


Were astronomers is the predicate, astronomers being quali¬ 
fied by most eminent , an adjective in the superlative degree. 
(This may be treated as a contracted compound sentence.) 

3. “ Bring me quickly the book from the study. 11 

This is a simple sentence—imperative. The subject is you 
(understood). The predicate bring is completed by its direct 
object, book, and its indirect or secondary object, me (Art. 
197 ; Obs. 2), and is qualified by the adverb quickly , and by 
the phrase from the study. 

4. “ Art is long , and time is fleeting 11 

This is a compound sentence. The two members are 
connected by the copulative conjunction and. The subject 
of the first member is art , and the predicate is is long , is 
being the copula, and the adjective long qualifying art. 
(Analyze the second member in the same way.) 

“ Columbus crossed the Atlantic and discovered the New World. 11 

This is a compound sentence, equivalent to, Columbus 
crossed the Atlantic and Columbus discovered the New 
World. There is an ellipsis of the pronoun he as the nomi¬ 
native to discovered. As both finite verbs have the same 
subject, without its being repeated with the second, the 
sentence is said to be contracted. 

Columbus is the subject of the two members of the sen¬ 
tence, which are connected by the conjunction and. Crossed 
the Atlantic is the predicate of the first member; discovered 
the New World is the predicate of the second. 

6. “ The modest stars retire when the king of day approaches. 11 

This is a complex sentence. The principal clause is, The 
modest stars retire. The subordinate clause is, the king of day 
approaches : it is adverbial, and is connected with the prin¬ 
cipal clause by the conjunction when. (Analyze the sepa¬ 
rate clauses.) 


236 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


7. “ I know that the earth is round." 

This is a complex sentence. The principal clause is, I 
know. The subordinate clause is, the earth is round , a noun 
sentence, connected with the principal clauses by the sub¬ 
ordinate conjunction that. (Art. 156.) (Analyze each 
clause.) 

(The force of the conjunction that , and its demonstrative 
character, are shown by Horne Tooke, thus: “ The earth is 
round—I know that.”) 

8. “ God, who made the heavens and the earth , ruleth over all." 

This is a complex sentence; the subject God being quali¬ 
fied by the adjective clause, who made the heavens and the 
earth. The connection is made by the conjunctive import 
of the relative who. (Art. 115. Obs.) The principal sen¬ 
tence is, God ruleth over all. 

Exercises in Analysis. 

A nalyze the following sentences . 

I. Simple Sentences. 

Delays are always dangerous. Procrastination is the 
thief of time. To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow, 
creeps on from day to day. The same misfortune may befall 
any one of us. The old church by the river has fallen into 
ruins. The covetous man is tormented night and day by his 
greed and his fears. It is a very great happiness to live in 
a land of peace and plenty. Three great evils, ignorance, 
affectation, and want of taste, have introduced numerous 
corruptions into the English language. We are too much 
disposed to follow our own inclinations. Disgusted by so 
many discreditable acts, nearly all the man’s friends de¬ 
serted him. Try to pull that fine peach from the tree with¬ 
out letting it fall. He is said to have been a very ingenious 
workman in his youth. Considering all the circumstances 
of the explosion, the escape of any of the passengers seems 
extraordinary. The intense heat of the season has caused 
many serious diseases among the people. * 


EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 


237 


II. Complex Sentences. 

I know but this, that Thou art good. Blessings on the 
man that invented sleep. Sound travels much more rapidly 
than any race-horse can run. Tell me not in mournful 
numbers {that) life is but an empty dream. I cannot tell 
the reason why the experiment turned out so unsuccess¬ 
fully. I love to range through that half of eternity which 
is yet to come. What he most desires is, to have his own 
way without contradiction. I made a hasty retreat from 
the assembly as soon as the concert was ended. Whatever 
may be the consequence, I will endeavor to fulfill all my 
engagements. He will lose the respect of every good man, 
unless there is a great alteration in his conduct. The 
mountain is so high that the 3now lies on its summit 
throughout the summer. How he made his escape still re¬ 
mains a profound mystery. Lazy people always do as little 
as they can. The doctors cannot agree among themselves 
which mode of treatment is most likely to be attended with 
success. It is uncertain when letters first came into use. 
If a man does not make new acquaintances as he advances 
in life, he will soon find himself left nearly alone. 

III. Compound Sentences. 

One of the children is recovering from the attack, but the 
other is already dead. The day is cold, and dark, and 
dreary; and it rains, and the wind is never weaiy. We 
shall probably have another fine day to-morrow, for the 
clouds around the setting sun are very red. I have chosen 
you out of the world, therefore the world hateth you. Much 
silver was coined in England in the centuries immediately 
following the Norman Conquest; but neither gold nor cop¬ 
per was coined till a late period. He looked sorrowfully 
upon the dead body, but without any manifestation of 
anger or surprise. The vessel sank before any of the crew 
could be rescued. * Napoleon landed in the south of France, 
after he had made his escape from the island of Elba. 


238 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


EXAMPLES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 

I. 

Bomulus founded Rome. King Solomon built a 
splendid temple. The breeze is cool and refreshing. 
Thou art the man. The birds have flown away. Day 
is departing and night is descending. Whose is this 
image and superscription ? They say unto him, Caesar’s. 
Whom do you think the best ? He desires knowledge. 
She is desirous of acquiring knowledge. Those boys 
are too fond of idling away their time. The old man 
was suddenly stricken with paralysis. The house is on 
fire. Get some water to put it out quickly. I have 
never seen anything more neatly executed. 

II. 

Shall a mortal man be more just than God ? Shall 
a man be more pure than his Maker ? They are de¬ 
stroyed from morning to evening; they perish forever, 
without any regarding it. Man is born unto trouble 
as the sparks fly upward. My days are past, my pur¬ 
poses are broken off. Whence then cometh wisdom? 
and where is the place of understanding ? Day unto 
day uttereth speech, and night unto night sheweth 
knowledge. ( When ivords are placed in a sentence accord¬ 
ing to a rhetorical arrangement , they must he parsed ac¬ 
cording to their customary or grammatical order.) The 
lot is cast into the lap ; but the whole disposing thereof 
is of the Lord. Hope deferred maketh the heart sick; 
but when the desire cometh, it is a tree of life. He 
that hath knowledge spareth his words. 


EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 


239 


III. 

In looking at our age, I am struck immediately with 
one commanding characteristic, and that is the ten¬ 
dency in all its movements to expansion, to diffusion, 
to universality. To this, I ask your attention. This 
tendency is directly opposed to the spirit of exclusive¬ 
ness, restriction, narrowness, monopoly, which has pre¬ 
vailed in past ages. Human action is now freer, more 
unconfined. All goods, advantages, helps, are more 
open to all. The privileged, petted individual is be¬ 
coming less, and the human race are becoming more. 
The multitude is rising from the dust. Once we heard 
of the few, now of the many ; once, of the prerogatives 
of a part, now of the rights of all. We are looking, as 
never before, through the disguises, envelopments of 
ranks and classes, to the common nature which is below 
them; and are beginning to learn that every being 
who partakes of it, has noble powers to cultivate, 
solemn duties to perform, inalienable rights to assert; 
a vast destiny to accomplish. The grand idea of 
humanity, of the importance of man as man, is spread¬ 
ing silently, but surely.— Charming. 

TV. 

The thoughts and feelings of Columbus must have 
been tumultuous and intense. At length, in spite of 
every difficulty and danger, he had accomplished his 
object. The great mystery of the ocean was revealed: 
his theory, which had been the scoff of sages, was 
triumphantly established ; he had secured to himself a 
glory which must be as durable as the world itself. 


240 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


It is difficult even for the imagination to conceive 
the feelings of such a man at the moment of so sublime 
a discovery. What a bewildering crowd of conjectures 
must have thronged upon his mind as to. the land which 
lay before him, covered with darkness! That it was 
fruitful, was evident from the vegetables which floated 
from its shores. He thought, too, that he perceived in 
the balmy air the fragrance of aromatic groves. The 
moving light which he had beheld proved that it was 
the residence of man. But what were its inhabitants ? 
Were they like those of the other parts of the globe? 
or were they some strange and monstrous race, such as 
the imagination in those times was prone to give to all 
remote and unknown regions ?—Washington Irving . 

Y. 

Bess (a hare), I have said, died young; Tiney lived 
to be nine years old, and died at last, I have reason to 
think, of some hurt in his loins, by a fall; Puss is still 
living, and has just completed his tenth year, discover¬ 
ing no signs of decay, nor even of age, except that he 
has grown more discreet and less frolicsome than he 
was. I cannot conclude without observing that I have 
lately introduced a dog to his acquaintance,—a spaniel 
that had never seen a hare, to a hare that had never 
seen a spaniel. I did it with great caution, but there 
was no real need of it. Puss discovered no token of fear, 
nor Marquis (the dog) the least symptom of hostility. 
There is, therefore, it should seem, no natural antip¬ 
athy between dog and hare, but the pursuit of the one 
occasions the flight of the other, and the dog pursues 
because he is trained to it.— Cowper. 


EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 


241 


VI. 

Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray; 

And, when I crossed the wild, 

I chanced to see, at break of day 
The solitary child. 

No mate, no comrade Lucy knew; 

She dwelt on a wide moor,—* 

The sweetest thing that ever grew 
Beside a human door! 

You yet may spy the fawn at play, 

The hare upon the green ; 

But the sweet face of Lucy Gray 
Will never more be seen. 

Yet some maintain that to this day 
She is a living child; 

That you may see sweet Lucy Gray 
Upon the lonesome wild. 

O’er rough and smooth she trips along, 

And never looks behind; 

And sings a solitary song, 

That whistles in the wind.— Wordsworth. 

VII. 

The Dismal Swamp .—Numerous trunks of large and 
tall trees lie buried in the black mire of the morass. 
In so loose a soil they are easily overthrown by winds, 
and nearly as many have been found lying beneath the 


242 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


surface of tlie peaty soil, as standing erect upon it. 
When thrown down, they are soon covered with water, 
and keeping wet, they never decompose, except the 
sapwood, which is less than an inch thick. Much of 
the timber is obtained by sounding a foot or two below 
the surface, and it is sawn into planks while half under 
water. 

The Great Dismal has been described as being 
highest towards its centre. Here, however, there is an 
extensive lake of an oval form, seven miles long, and 
more than five wide, the depth, where greatest, fifteen 
feet; and its bottom consisting of mud like the swamp, 
but sometimes with a pure white sand, a foot deep, 
covering the mud. The water is transparent, though 
tinged of a pale brown color, like that of our peat¬ 
mosses, and contains abundance of fish. This sheet of 
water is usually even with its banks, on which a thick 
and tall forest grows. There is no beach, for the bank 
sinks perpendicularly, so that if the waters are lowered 
several feet, it makes no alteration in the breadth of 
the lake.— Lydl . 

VIII. 

A gentleman is bound to be industrious for his own 
sake; it is a duty which he oweth to himself, to his 
honor, to his interest, to his welfare. He cannot, 
without industry, continue like himself, or maintain 
the honor and repute becoming his quality and state, 
or secure himself from contempt and disgrace ; for to 
be honorable and slothful are things inconsistent; see¬ 
ing honor does not grow, nor can subsist without un¬ 
dertaking worthy designs, constantly pursuing them, 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 243 

and happily achieving them : it is the fruit and reward 
of such actions as are not performed with ease. 

He cannot, without industry, guard his personal wel¬ 
fare from manifold inconveniences, molestations, and 
mischiefs; idleness itself will be very troublesome and 
irksome to him. His time will lie on his hands as a 
pestering encumbrance. His mind will be infested with 
various distractions and distempers; vain and sad 
thoughts, foul lusts, and unquiet passions will spring 
up therein, as weeds in a neglected soil. His body will 
languish and become destitute of health, of vigor, of 
activity, for want of due exercise. All the mischiefs 
which naturally do spring from sloth and stupidity will 
seize on him .—Isaac Barrow . 

IX. 

The increase of domestic industry lays the founda¬ 
tion of foreign commerce. Where a great number of 
commodities are raised and perfected for the home- 
market, there will always be found some that can be 
exported with advantage. But if our neighbors have 
no art or cultivation, they cannot take them ; because 
they will have nothing to give in exchange. In this 
respect States are in the same condition as individuals. 
A single man can scarcely be industrious, when all his 
fellow-citizens are idle. The riches of the several 
members of a community contribute to increase my 
riches, whatever profession I may follow. They con¬ 
sume the produce of my industry, and afford me the 
produce of theirs in return. 

Nor need any State entertain apprehensions that 


244 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


their neighbors will improve to such a degree in every 
art and manufacture, as to have no demand from them. 
Nature, by giving a diversity of geniuses, climates, and 
soils to different nations, has secured their mutual in¬ 
tercourse and commerce, as long as they all remain 
industrious and civilized. Nay, the more the arts in¬ 
crease in any State, the more will be its demands from 
its industrious neighbors.— Hume. 


X. 

As every climate has its peculiar diseases, so every 
walk of life has its peculiar temptations. The literary 
character, assuredly, has always had its share of faults, 
vanity, jealousy, morbid sensibility. To these faults 
were now superadded the faults which are commonly 
found in men whose livelihood is precarious, and whoso 
principles are exposed to the trial of severe distress. 
All the vices of the gambler and of the beggar were 
blended with those of the author. The prizes in the 
wretched lottery of book-making were scarcely less 
ruinous than the blanks. If good fortune came, it 
came in such a manner that it was almost certain to be 
abused. After months of starvation and despair, a full 
third night, or a well-received dedication, filled the 
pocket of the lean, ragged, unwashed poet with guineas. 
He hastened to enjoy those luxuries with the images 
of which his mind had been haunted whilst he was 
sleeping amidst the cinders, and eating potatoes at the 
Irish ordinary in Shoe Lane. A week of taverns soon 
qualified him for another year of night-cellars. Such 
was the life of Savage, of Boyce, and of a crowd of 
others.— Macaulay. 


EXAMPLES FOE PARSING. 


245 


XI. 

I am* just returned from Westminster Abbey, tbe 
place of sepulture for the philosophers, heroes, and 
kings of England. What a gloom do monumental in¬ 
scriptions, and all the venerable remains of deceased 
merit inspire! Imagine a temple marked with the 
hand of antiquity, solemn as religious awe, adorned 
with all the magnificence of barbarous profusion, dim 
windows, fretted pillars, long colonnades, and dark 
ceilings. Think, then, what were my sensations at 
being introduced to such a scene. I stood in the midst 
of the temple, and threw my eyes round on the walls, 
filled with the statues, the inscriptions, and the monu¬ 
ments of the dead. 

Alas ! I said to myself, how does pride attend the 
puny child of dust even to the grave! Even humble 
as I am, I possess more consequence in the present 
scene than the greatest hero of them all; they have 
toiled for an hour to gain a transient immortality, and 
are at length returned to the grave, where they have 
no attendant but the worm, none to flatter but the 
epitaph.— Goldsmith. 

XII. 

- O God ! methinks it were a happy life, 

To be no better than a homely swain; 

To sit upon a hill, as I do now, 

To carve out dials quaintly, point by point, 

Thereby to see the minutes how they run. 

* The verb to be is sometimes used instead of the Auxiliary to have, in forming the Past tenses 
of some Intransitive verbs. This practice was much more common formerly than it now is. 


246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

All! what a life were this ! how sweet! how lovely! 
Gives not the hawthorn bush a sweeter shade 
To shepherds, looking on their silly sheep, 

Than doth a rich embroider’d canopy 
To kings, that fear their subjects’ treachery ? 

O, yes it doth ; a thousand-fold it doth. 

And to conclude,—the shepherd’s homely curds, 

His cold thin drink out of his leather bottle, 

His wonted sleep under a fresh tree’s shade, 

All which secure and sweetly he enjoys, 

Is far beyond a prince’s delicates, 

His viands sparkling in a golden cup, 

His body couched in a curious bed, 

When care, mistrust, and treason wait on him. 

Shakespeare . 

For other exercises in parsing, recourse may be had to 
the Reading-books employed in the school. What is easy 
to read and understand, is usually easy to parse. 




























































































































































































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Writing-Books. The Original Duntonian Sys¬ 
tem of Rapid Writing. 

Revised and improved. Designed for Schools of all grades. 
By A. R. Dunton. 


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proved methods of the present, on which all might unite in securing a higher 
degree of uniformity of books. 

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terms made for introduction. Send for Descriptive List. 

University Publishing Company, 

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